tensor4all_core/defaults/

tensordynlen.rs

use crate::defaults::DynIndex;
use crate::index_like::IndexLike;
use crate::index_ops::{common_ind_positions, prepare_contraction, prepare_contraction_pairs};
use crate::tensor_like::LinearizationOrder;
use crate::AnyScalar;
use anyhow::{Context, Result};
use num_complex::Complex64;
use num_traits::Zero;
use rand::Rng;
use rand_distr::{Distribution, StandardNormal};
use std::cell::RefCell;
use std::cmp::Reverse;
use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
use std::env;
use std::sync::{Arc, OnceLock};
use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
use tenferro::{DType, DotGeneralConfig, Tensor as NativeTensor};
use tenferro_ad::EagerTensor;
use tenferro_einsum::eager_tensor::einsum_subscripts as eager_einsum_ad;
use tenferro_einsum::EinsumSubscripts;
use tensor4all_tensorbackend::{
    axpby_native_tensor, contract_native_tensor, default_eager_ctx,
    dense_native_tensor_from_col_major, diag_native_tensor_from_col_major,
    native_tensor_primal_to_dense_col_major, native_tensor_primal_to_diag_c64,
    native_tensor_primal_to_diag_f64, native_tensor_primal_to_storage, scale_native_tensor,
    storage_payload_native_read_input, storage_to_native_tensor, AnyScalar as BackendScalar,
    StorageScalar, TensorElement,
};
use tensor4all_tensorbackend::{Storage, StorageKind};

use super::contract::PairwiseContractionOptions;
use super::structured_contraction::{
    normalize_payload_read_for_roots, storage_from_payload_native, storage_payload_native,
    OperandLayout, StructuredContractionPlan, StructuredContractionSpec,
};

#[derive(Debug, Default, Clone)]
struct PairwiseContractProfileEntry {
    calls: usize,
    total_time: Duration,
    total_bytes: usize,
}

thread_local! {
    static PAIRWISE_CONTRACT_PROFILE_STATE: RefCell<HashMap<&'static str, PairwiseContractProfileEntry>> =
        RefCell::new(HashMap::new());
}

fn pairwise_contract_profile_enabled() -> bool {
    static ENABLED: OnceLock<bool> = OnceLock::new();
    *ENABLED.get_or_init(|| env::var("T4A_PROFILE_PAIRWISE_CONTRACT").is_ok())
}

fn record_pairwise_contract_profile(section: &'static str, elapsed: Duration) {
    if !pairwise_contract_profile_enabled() {
        return;
    }
    PAIRWISE_CONTRACT_PROFILE_STATE.with(|state| {
        let mut state = state.borrow_mut();
        let entry = state.entry(section).or_default();
        entry.calls += 1;
        entry.total_time += elapsed;
    });
}

fn record_pairwise_contract_profile_bytes(section: &'static str, bytes: usize) {
    if !pairwise_contract_profile_enabled() {
        return;
    }
    PAIRWISE_CONTRACT_PROFILE_STATE.with(|state| {
        let mut state = state.borrow_mut();
        let entry = state.entry(section).or_default();
        entry.total_bytes += bytes;
    });
}

fn profile_pairwise_contract_section<T>(section: &'static str, f: impl FnOnce() -> T) -> T {
    if !pairwise_contract_profile_enabled() {
        return f();
    }
    let started = Instant::now();
    let result = f();
    record_pairwise_contract_profile(section, started.elapsed());
    result
}

/// Reset the aggregated pairwise `TensorDynLen` contraction profile.
pub fn reset_pairwise_contract_profile() {
    PAIRWISE_CONTRACT_PROFILE_STATE.with(|state| state.borrow_mut().clear());
}

/// Print and clear the aggregated pairwise `TensorDynLen` contraction profile.
pub fn print_and_reset_pairwise_contract_profile() {
    if !pairwise_contract_profile_enabled() {
        return;
    }
    PAIRWISE_CONTRACT_PROFILE_STATE.with(|state| {
        let mut entries: Vec<_> = state
            .borrow()
            .iter()
            .map(|(section, entry)| (*section, entry.clone()))
            .collect();
        state.borrow_mut().clear();
        entries.sort_by_key(|(_, entry)| Reverse(entry.total_time));

        eprintln!("=== TensorDynLen pairwise contract profile ===");
        for (section, entry) in entries {
            let per_call_us = if entry.calls == 0 {
                0.0
            } else {
                entry.total_time.as_secs_f64() * 1.0e6 / entry.calls as f64
            };
            eprintln!(
                "{section}: calls={} total={:.6}ms per_call={:.3}us bytes={}",
                entry.calls,
                entry.total_time.as_secs_f64() * 1.0e3,
                per_call_us,
                entry.total_bytes,
            );
        }
    });
}

fn native_tensor_profile_bytes(native: &NativeTensor) -> usize {
    let element_size = match native.dtype() {
        DType::F32 => 4,
        DType::F64 => 8,
        DType::C32 => 8,
        DType::C64 => 16,
        DType::I32 => 4,
        DType::I64 => 8,
        DType::Bool => 1,
    };
    native.shape().iter().product::<usize>() * element_size
}

/// Trait for scalar types that can generate random values from a standard
/// normal distribution.
///
/// This enables the generic [`TensorDynLen::random`] constructor.
pub trait RandomScalar: TensorElement {
    /// Generate a random value from the standard normal distribution.
    fn random_value<R: Rng>(rng: &mut R) -> Self;
}

impl RandomScalar for f64 {
    fn random_value<R: Rng>(rng: &mut R) -> Self {
        StandardNormal.sample(rng)
    }
}

impl RandomScalar for Complex64 {
    fn random_value<R: Rng>(rng: &mut R) -> Self {
        Complex64::new(StandardNormal.sample(rng), StandardNormal.sample(rng))
    }
}

/// Compute the permutation array from original indices to new indices.
///
/// This function finds the mapping from new indices to original indices by
/// matching index IDs. The result is a permutation array `perm` such that
/// `new_indices[i]` corresponds to `original_indices[perm[i]]`.
///
/// # Arguments
/// * `original_indices` - The original indices in their current order
/// * `new_indices` - The desired new indices order (must be a permutation of original_indices)
///
/// # Returns
/// A `Vec<usize>` representing the permutation: `perm[i]` is the position in
/// `original_indices` of the index that should be at position `i` in `new_indices`.
///
/// # Errors
/// Returns an error if the slices have different lengths, if `new_indices`
/// is not a permutation of `original_indices`, or if `new_indices` contains
/// duplicate indices.
///
/// # Example
/// ```
/// use tensor4all_core::tensor::compute_permutation_from_indices;
/// use tensor4all_core::DynIndex;
///
/// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
/// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
/// let original = vec![i.clone(), j.clone()];
/// let new_order = vec![j.clone(), i.clone()];
///
/// let perm = compute_permutation_from_indices(&original, &new_order).unwrap();
/// assert_eq!(perm, vec![1, 0]);  // j is at position 1, i is at position 0
/// ```
pub fn compute_permutation_from_indices(
    original_indices: &[DynIndex],
    new_indices: &[DynIndex],
) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
    anyhow::ensure!(
        new_indices.len() == original_indices.len(),
        "new_indices length must match original_indices length"
    );

    let mut perm = Vec::with_capacity(new_indices.len());
    let mut used = std::collections::HashSet::new();

    for new_idx in new_indices {
        // Find the position of this index in the original indices
        // DynIndex implements Eq, so we can compare directly
        let pos = original_indices
            .iter()
            .position(|old_idx| old_idx == new_idx)
            .ok_or_else(|| {
                anyhow::anyhow!("new_indices must be a permutation of original_indices")
            })?;

        anyhow::ensure!(used.insert(pos), "duplicate index in new_indices");
        perm.push(pos);
    }

    Ok(perm)
}

#[derive(Clone)]
pub(crate) struct StructuredAdValue {
    payload: Arc<EagerTensor>,
    payload_dims: Vec<usize>,
    axis_classes: Vec<usize>,
}

#[derive(Clone)]
pub(crate) enum TensorDynLenStorage {
    Materialized(Arc<Storage>),
    Eager {
        inner: Arc<EagerTensor>,
        axis_classes: Vec<usize>,
    },
}

impl TensorDynLenStorage {
    fn from_storage(storage: Arc<Storage>) -> Self {
        Self::Materialized(storage)
    }

    fn from_eager_dense(inner: EagerTensor, rank: usize) -> Self {
        Self::Eager {
            inner: Arc::new(inner),
            axis_classes: TensorDynLen::dense_axis_classes(rank),
        }
    }

    fn eager(&self) -> Option<&EagerTensor> {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(_) => None,
            Self::Eager { inner, .. } => Some(inner.as_ref()),
        }
    }

    fn axis_classes(&self) -> &[usize] {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => storage.axis_classes(),
            Self::Eager { axis_classes, .. } => axis_classes,
        }
    }

    fn payload_dims(&self) -> &[usize] {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => storage.payload_dims(),
            Self::Eager { inner, .. } => inner.data().shape(),
        }
    }

    fn payload_strides_vec(&self) -> Vec<isize> {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => storage.payload_strides().to_vec(),
            Self::Eager { inner, .. } => {
                let mut stride = 1isize;
                inner
                    .data()
                    .shape()
                    .iter()
                    .map(|&dim| {
                        let current = stride;
                        stride *= isize::try_from(dim).unwrap_or(isize::MAX);
                        current
                    })
                    .collect()
            }
        }
    }

    fn is_f64(&self) -> bool {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => storage.is_f64(),
            Self::Eager { inner, .. } => inner.data().dtype() == DType::F64,
        }
    }

    fn is_c64(&self) -> bool {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => storage.is_c64(),
            Self::Eager { inner, .. } => inner.data().dtype() == DType::C64,
        }
    }

    fn is_complex(&self) -> bool {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => storage.is_complex(),
            Self::Eager { inner, .. } => matches!(inner.data().dtype(), DType::C32 | DType::C64),
        }
    }

    fn is_diag(&self) -> bool {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => storage.is_diag(),
            Self::Eager { axis_classes, .. } => TensorDynLen::is_diag_axis_classes(axis_classes),
        }
    }

    fn storage_kind(&self) -> StorageKind {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => storage.storage_kind(),
            Self::Eager { axis_classes, .. } => {
                if axis_classes.iter().copied().eq(0..axis_classes.len()) {
                    StorageKind::Dense
                } else if TensorDynLen::is_diag_axis_classes(axis_classes) {
                    StorageKind::Diagonal
                } else {
                    StorageKind::Structured
                }
            }
        }
    }

    fn materialize(&self, logical_rank: usize) -> Result<Arc<Storage>> {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => Ok(Arc::clone(storage)),
            Self::Eager {
                inner,
                axis_classes,
            } => Ok(Arc::new(
                TensorDynLen::storage_from_native_with_axis_classes(
                    inner.data(),
                    axis_classes,
                    logical_rank,
                )?,
            )),
        }
    }

    fn scale(&self, scalar: &BackendScalar) -> Result<Storage> {
        Ok(self.materialize(self.axis_classes().len())?.scale(scalar))
    }

    fn conj(&self) -> Result<Self> {
        match self {
            Self::Materialized(storage) => Ok(Self::Materialized(Arc::new(storage.conj()))),
            Self::Eager {
                inner,
                axis_classes,
            } => Ok(Self::Eager {
                inner: Arc::new(inner.conj()?),
                axis_classes: axis_classes.clone(),
            }),
        }
    }

    fn max_abs(&self) -> Result<f64> {
        Ok(self.materialize(self.axis_classes().len())?.max_abs())
    }
}

/// Dynamic-rank tensor with structured payload storage -- the central data type
/// of tensor4all.
///
/// `TensorDynLen` stores a logical multi-dimensional tensor of `f64` or
/// `Complex64` values together with a list of [`DynIndex`] labels. The
/// authoritative payload is compact [`Storage`], which may be dense, diagonal,
/// or explicitly structured. The indices carry unique identities (UUIDs) so
/// that contraction, addition, and other binary operations can automatically
/// match legs by identity rather than position.
///
/// # Key Operations
///
/// | Operation | Method |
/// |-----------|--------|
/// | Create from data | [`from_dense`](Self::from_dense), [`from_diag`](Self::from_diag), [`zeros`](Self::zeros) |
/// | Extract data | [`to_vec`](Self::to_vec), [`into_dense_col_major_parts`](Self::into_dense_col_major_parts), [`sum`](Self::sum), [`only`](Self::only) |
/// | Contraction | [`contract`](Self::contract) |
/// | Arithmetic | [`add`](Self::add), [`scale`](Self::scale), [`axpby`](Self::axpby) |
/// | Factorization | via [`TensorFactorizationLike::factorize`](crate::TensorFactorizationLike::factorize) |
/// | Norms | [`norm`](Self::norm), [`norm_squared`](Self::norm_squared), [`maxabs`](Self::maxabs) |
/// | Index ops | [`replaceind`](Self::replaceind), [`permute_indices`](Self::permute_indices) |
///
/// # Data Layout
///
/// Logical dense extraction uses **column-major** order (first index varies
/// fastest), matching Fortran, Julia, and ITensors.jl conventions. Compact
/// structured payloads additionally carry explicit payload dimensions, strides,
/// and logical-axis classes.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```
/// use tensor4all_core::{TensorDynLen, DynIndex};
///
/// // Create a 2x3 real tensor
/// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
/// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
/// let data = vec![1.0_f64, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0];
/// let t = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone(), j.clone()], data).unwrap();
///
/// assert_eq!(t.dims(), vec![2, 3]);
/// assert!(t.is_f64());
///
/// // Sum all elements: 1+2+3+4+5+6 = 21
/// let s = t.sum().unwrap();
/// assert!((s.real() - 21.0).abs() < 1e-12);
///
/// // Extract data back out
/// let data_out = t.to_vec::<f64>().unwrap();
/// assert_eq!(data_out, vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0]);
/// ```
#[derive(Clone)]
pub struct TensorDynLen {
    /// Full index information (includes tags and other metadata).
    pub indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
    /// Authoritative compact payload storage.
    pub(crate) storage: TensorDynLenStorage,
    /// Optional tracked compact payload used to preserve structured AD layouts.
    pub(crate) structured_ad: Option<Arc<StructuredAdValue>>,
    /// Lazily materialized eager payload for native execution and AD.
    pub(crate) eager_cache: Arc<OnceLock<Arc<EagerTensor>>>,
}

impl TensorDynLen {
    fn dense_axis_classes(rank: usize) -> Vec<usize> {
        (0..rank).collect()
    }

    fn diag_axis_classes(rank: usize) -> Vec<usize> {
        if rank == 0 {
            vec![]
        } else {
            vec![0; rank]
        }
    }

    fn canonicalize_axis_classes(axis_classes: &[usize]) -> Vec<usize> {
        let mut map = std::collections::HashMap::new();
        let mut next = 0usize;
        axis_classes
            .iter()
            .map(|&class_id| {
                *map.entry(class_id).or_insert_with(|| {
                    let canonical = next;
                    next += 1;
                    canonical
                })
            })
            .collect()
    }

    fn permute_axis_classes(&self, perm: &[usize]) -> Vec<usize> {
        let axis_classes = self.storage.axis_classes();
        let permuted: Vec<usize> = perm.iter().map(|&index| axis_classes[index]).collect();
        Self::canonicalize_axis_classes(&permuted)
    }

    fn normalize_insert_axis(op: &str, axis: isize, rank: usize) -> Result<usize> {
        let normalized = if axis < 0 {
            rank as isize + 1 + axis
        } else {
            axis
        };
        anyhow::ensure!(
            normalized >= 0 && normalized <= rank as isize,
            "{op}: axis {axis} is out of bounds for inserting into rank {rank}"
        );
        Ok(normalized as usize)
    }

    fn is_diag_axis_classes(axis_classes: &[usize]) -> bool {
        axis_classes.len() >= 2 && axis_classes.iter().all(|&class_id| class_id == 0)
    }

    fn einsum_subscripts_from_usize_ids(
        inputs: &[Vec<usize>],
        output: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<EinsumSubscripts> {
        let input_labels = inputs
            .iter()
            .map(|ids| {
                ids.iter()
                    .map(|&id| {
                        u32::try_from(id)
                            .map_err(|_| anyhow::anyhow!("einsum label {id} exceeds u32 range"))
                    })
                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()
            })
            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
        let output_labels = output
            .iter()
            .map(|&id| {
                u32::try_from(id)
                    .map_err(|_| anyhow::anyhow!("einsum label {id} exceeds u32 range"))
            })
            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
        let input_refs = input_labels.iter().map(Vec::as_slice).collect::<Vec<_>>();
        Ok(EinsumSubscripts::new(&input_refs, &output_labels))
    }

    fn build_binary_einsum_subscripts(
        lhs_rank: usize,
        axes_a: &[usize],
        rhs_rank: usize,
        axes_b: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<EinsumSubscripts> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            axes_a.len() == axes_b.len(),
            "contract axis length mismatch: lhs {:?}, rhs {:?}",
            axes_a,
            axes_b
        );

        let mut lhs_ids = vec![usize::MAX; lhs_rank];
        let mut rhs_ids = vec![usize::MAX; rhs_rank];
        let mut next_id = 0usize;

        let mut seen_lhs = vec![false; lhs_rank];
        let mut seen_rhs = vec![false; rhs_rank];

        for (&lhs_axis, &rhs_axis) in axes_a.iter().zip(axes_b.iter()) {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                lhs_axis < lhs_rank,
                "lhs contract axis {lhs_axis} out of range"
            );
            anyhow::ensure!(
                rhs_axis < rhs_rank,
                "rhs contract axis {rhs_axis} out of range"
            );
            anyhow::ensure!(
                !seen_lhs[lhs_axis],
                "duplicate lhs contract axis {lhs_axis}"
            );
            anyhow::ensure!(
                !seen_rhs[rhs_axis],
                "duplicate rhs contract axis {rhs_axis}"
            );
            seen_lhs[lhs_axis] = true;
            seen_rhs[rhs_axis] = true;
            lhs_ids[lhs_axis] = next_id;
            rhs_ids[rhs_axis] = next_id;
            next_id += 1;
        }

        let mut output_ids = Vec::with_capacity(lhs_rank + rhs_rank - 2 * axes_a.len());
        for id in &mut lhs_ids {
            if *id == usize::MAX {
                *id = next_id;
                output_ids.push(next_id);
                next_id += 1;
            }
        }
        for id in &mut rhs_ids {
            if *id == usize::MAX {
                *id = next_id;
                output_ids.push(next_id);
                next_id += 1;
            }
        }

        Self::einsum_subscripts_from_usize_ids(&[lhs_ids, rhs_ids], &output_ids)
    }

    fn binary_dot_general_config(axes_a: &[usize], axes_b: &[usize]) -> Result<DotGeneralConfig> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            axes_a.len() == axes_b.len(),
            "contract axis length mismatch: lhs {:?}, rhs {:?}",
            axes_a,
            axes_b
        );
        Ok(DotGeneralConfig {
            lhs_contracting_dims: axes_a.to_vec(),
            rhs_contracting_dims: axes_b.to_vec(),
            lhs_batch_dims: vec![],
            rhs_batch_dims: vec![],
        })
    }

    fn binary_contraction_axis_classes(
        lhs_axis_classes: &[usize],
        axes_a: &[usize],
        rhs_axis_classes: &[usize],
        axes_b: &[usize],
    ) -> Vec<usize> {
        debug_assert_eq!(axes_a.len(), axes_b.len());

        fn find(parent: &mut [usize], value: usize) -> usize {
            if parent[value] != value {
                parent[value] = find(parent, parent[value]);
            }
            parent[value]
        }

        fn union(parent: &mut [usize], lhs: usize, rhs: usize) {
            let lhs_root = find(parent, lhs);
            let rhs_root = find(parent, rhs);
            if lhs_root != rhs_root {
                parent[rhs_root] = lhs_root;
            }
        }

        let lhs_payload_rank = lhs_axis_classes
            .iter()
            .copied()
            .max()
            .map(|value| value + 1)
            .unwrap_or(0);
        let rhs_payload_rank = rhs_axis_classes
            .iter()
            .copied()
            .max()
            .map(|value| value + 1)
            .unwrap_or(0);
        let rhs_offset = lhs_payload_rank;
        let mut parent: Vec<usize> = (0..lhs_payload_rank + rhs_payload_rank).collect();

        for (&lhs_axis, &rhs_axis) in axes_a.iter().zip(axes_b.iter()) {
            union(
                &mut parent,
                lhs_axis_classes[lhs_axis],
                rhs_offset + rhs_axis_classes[rhs_axis],
            );
        }

        let mut lhs_contracted = vec![false; lhs_axis_classes.len()];
        for &axis in axes_a {
            lhs_contracted[axis] = true;
        }
        let mut rhs_contracted = vec![false; rhs_axis_classes.len()];
        for &axis in axes_b {
            rhs_contracted[axis] = true;
        }

        let mut root_to_class = std::collections::HashMap::new();
        let mut next_class = 0usize;
        let mut axis_classes = Vec::new();

        for (axis, &class_id) in lhs_axis_classes.iter().enumerate() {
            if !lhs_contracted[axis] {
                let root = find(&mut parent, class_id);
                let class = *root_to_class.entry(root).or_insert_with(|| {
                    let value = next_class;
                    next_class += 1;
                    value
                });
                axis_classes.push(class);
            }
        }
        for (axis, &class_id) in rhs_axis_classes.iter().enumerate() {
            if !rhs_contracted[axis] {
                let root = find(&mut parent, rhs_offset + class_id);
                let class = *root_to_class.entry(root).or_insert_with(|| {
                    let value = next_class;
                    next_class += 1;
                    value
                });
                axis_classes.push(class);
            }
        }

        axis_classes
    }

    fn scale_subscripts(rank: usize) -> Result<EinsumSubscripts> {
        let ids: Vec<usize> = (0..rank).collect();
        Self::einsum_subscripts_from_usize_ids(&[ids.clone(), Vec::new()], &ids)
    }

    fn validate_indices(indices: &[DynIndex]) -> Result<()> {
        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
        for idx in indices {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                seen.insert(idx.clone()),
                "Tensor indices must all be unique"
            );
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    fn validate_diag_dims(dims: &[usize]) -> Result<()> {
        if !dims.is_empty() {
            let first_dim = dims[0];
            for (i, &dim) in dims.iter().enumerate() {
                anyhow::ensure!(
                    dim == first_dim,
                    "DiagTensor requires all indices to have the same dimension, but dims[{i}] = {dim} != dims[0] = {first_dim}"
                );
            }
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    fn seed_native_payload(storage: &Storage, dims: &[usize]) -> Result<NativeTensor> {
        storage_to_native_tensor(storage, dims)
    }

    fn empty_eager_cache() -> Arc<OnceLock<Arc<EagerTensor>>> {
        Arc::new(OnceLock::new())
    }

    fn eager_cache_with(inner: EagerTensor) -> Arc<OnceLock<Arc<EagerTensor>>> {
        let cache = Arc::new(OnceLock::new());
        let _ = cache.set(Arc::new(inner));
        cache
    }

    fn compact_payload_inner(&self) -> Result<EagerTensor> {
        Ok(EagerTensor::from_tensor_in(
            storage_payload_native(self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?.as_ref())?,
            default_eager_ctx(),
        ))
    }

    fn tracked_compact_payload_value(&self) -> Option<&StructuredAdValue> {
        self.structured_ad.as_deref()
    }

    fn compact_payload_is_logical_dense(&self, payload_dims: &[usize]) -> bool {
        self.storage.axis_classes() == Self::dense_axis_classes(self.indices.len())
            && payload_dims == self.dims()
    }

    fn uses_tracked_compact_storage(&self) -> bool {
        self.tracked_compact_payload_value()
            .is_some_and(|value| !self.compact_payload_is_logical_dense(&value.payload_dims))
    }

    fn ensure_shape_packing_preserves_ad(&self, op_name: &str) -> Result<()> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            !self.uses_tracked_compact_storage(),
            "{op_name}: structured AD tensors with compact storage are not supported because materializing compact storage would detach gradients"
        );
        Ok(())
    }

    fn operand_indices_for_contraction(&self, conjugate: bool) -> Vec<DynIndex> {
        if conjugate {
            self.indices.iter().map(|index| index.conj()).collect()
        } else {
            self.indices.clone()
        }
    }

    fn build_binary_contraction_labels(
        lhs_rank: usize,
        axes_a: &[usize],
        rhs_rank: usize,
        axes_b: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<(Vec<usize>, Vec<usize>, Vec<usize>)> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            axes_a.len() == axes_b.len(),
            "contract axis length mismatch: lhs {:?}, rhs {:?}",
            axes_a,
            axes_b
        );

        let mut lhs_ids = vec![usize::MAX; lhs_rank];
        let mut rhs_ids = vec![usize::MAX; rhs_rank];
        let mut next_id = 0usize;

        let mut seen_lhs = vec![false; lhs_rank];
        let mut seen_rhs = vec![false; rhs_rank];

        for (&lhs_axis, &rhs_axis) in axes_a.iter().zip(axes_b.iter()) {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                lhs_axis < lhs_rank,
                "lhs contract axis {lhs_axis} out of range"
            );
            anyhow::ensure!(
                rhs_axis < rhs_rank,
                "rhs contract axis {rhs_axis} out of range"
            );
            anyhow::ensure!(
                !seen_lhs[lhs_axis],
                "duplicate lhs contract axis {lhs_axis}"
            );
            anyhow::ensure!(
                !seen_rhs[rhs_axis],
                "duplicate rhs contract axis {rhs_axis}"
            );
            seen_lhs[lhs_axis] = true;
            seen_rhs[rhs_axis] = true;
            lhs_ids[lhs_axis] = next_id;
            rhs_ids[rhs_axis] = next_id;
            next_id += 1;
        }

        let mut output_ids = Vec::with_capacity(lhs_rank + rhs_rank - 2 * axes_a.len());
        for id in &mut lhs_ids {
            if *id == usize::MAX {
                *id = next_id;
                output_ids.push(next_id);
                next_id += 1;
            }
        }
        for id in &mut rhs_ids {
            if *id == usize::MAX {
                *id = next_id;
                output_ids.push(next_id);
                next_id += 1;
            }
        }

        Ok((lhs_ids, rhs_ids, output_ids))
    }

    fn build_payload_einsum_subscripts(
        input_roots: &[Vec<usize>],
        output_roots: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<EinsumSubscripts> {
        Self::einsum_subscripts_from_usize_ids(input_roots, output_roots)
    }

    fn normalize_eager_payload_for_roots(
        payload: &EagerTensor,
        roots: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<(Option<EagerTensor>, Vec<usize>)> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            payload.data().shape().len() == roots.len(),
            "payload rank {} does not match root label count {}",
            payload.data().shape().len(),
            roots.len()
        );

        let mut current_payload = None;
        let mut current_roots = roots.to_vec();
        while let Some((axis_a, axis_b)) = Self::first_duplicate_pair(&current_roots) {
            let source = current_payload.as_ref().unwrap_or(payload);
            current_payload = Some(source.extract_diag(axis_a, axis_b)?);
            current_roots.remove(axis_b);
        }

        Ok((current_payload, current_roots))
    }

    fn first_duplicate_pair(values: &[usize]) -> Option<(usize, usize)> {
        let mut first_axis_by_value = std::collections::HashMap::new();
        for (axis, &value) in values.iter().enumerate() {
            if let Some(&first_axis) = first_axis_by_value.get(&value) {
                return Some((first_axis, axis));
            }
            first_axis_by_value.insert(value, axis);
        }
        None
    }

    fn binary_structured_contraction_plan(
        &self,
        other: &Self,
        axes_a: &[usize],
        axes_b: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<(StructuredContractionPlan, Vec<Vec<usize>>, Vec<usize>)> {
        let (lhs_labels, rhs_labels, output_labels) = Self::build_binary_contraction_labels(
            self.indices.len(),
            axes_a,
            other.indices.len(),
            axes_b,
        )?;
        let operands = vec![
            OperandLayout::new(self.dims(), self.storage.axis_classes().to_vec())?,
            OperandLayout::new(other.dims(), other.storage.axis_classes().to_vec())?,
        ];
        let spec = StructuredContractionSpec {
            input_labels: vec![lhs_labels, rhs_labels],
            output_labels,
            retained_labels: Default::default(),
        };
        let plan = StructuredContractionPlan::new(&operands, &spec)?;
        Ok((plan, spec.input_labels, spec.output_labels))
    }

    fn from_structured_payload_inner(
        indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        payload_inner: EagerTensor,
        payload_dims: Vec<usize>,
        axis_classes: Vec<usize>,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        Self::validate_indices(&indices)?;
        if payload_inner.data().shape() != payload_dims {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "structured payload dims {:?} do not match planned payload dims {:?}",
                payload_inner.data().shape(),
                payload_dims
            ));
        }
        let storage = storage_from_payload_native(
            payload_inner.data().clone(),
            &payload_dims,
            axis_classes.clone(),
        )?;
        Self::validate_storage_matches_indices(&indices, &storage)?;
        Ok(Self {
            indices,
            storage: TensorDynLenStorage::from_storage(Arc::new(storage)),
            structured_ad: Some(Arc::new(StructuredAdValue {
                payload: Arc::new(payload_inner),
                payload_dims,
                axis_classes,
            })),
            eager_cache: Self::empty_eager_cache(),
        })
    }

    fn contract_structured_payloads(
        &self,
        other: &Self,
        result_indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        axes_a: &[usize],
        axes_b: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        let (plan, _, _) = self.binary_structured_contraction_plan(other, axes_a, axes_b)?;
        let lhs_roots = plan.operand_plans[0].class_roots.clone();
        let rhs_roots = plan.operand_plans[1].class_roots.clone();
        let scalar_multiply =
            lhs_roots.is_empty() && rhs_roots.is_empty() && plan.output_payload_roots.is_empty();

        if let (Some(lhs_ad), Some(rhs_ad)) = (
            self.tracked_compact_payload_value(),
            other.tracked_compact_payload_value(),
        ) {
            if lhs_ad.payload.data().dtype() != rhs_ad.payload.data().dtype() {
                return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                    "structured AD contraction requires matching payload dtypes"
                ));
            }
            let (lhs_normalized, lhs_labels) =
                Self::normalize_eager_payload_for_roots(lhs_ad.payload.as_ref(), &lhs_roots)?;
            let (rhs_normalized, rhs_labels) =
                Self::normalize_eager_payload_for_roots(rhs_ad.payload.as_ref(), &rhs_roots)?;
            let lhs_payload = lhs_normalized
                .as_ref()
                .unwrap_or_else(|| lhs_ad.payload.as_ref());
            let rhs_payload = rhs_normalized
                .as_ref()
                .unwrap_or_else(|| rhs_ad.payload.as_ref());
            let payload = if scalar_multiply {
                lhs_payload.mul(rhs_payload)?
            } else {
                let subscripts = Self::build_payload_einsum_subscripts(
                    &[lhs_labels, rhs_labels],
                    &plan.output_payload_roots,
                )?;
                eager_einsum_ad(&[lhs_payload, rhs_payload], &subscripts)?
            };
            return Self::from_structured_payload_inner(
                result_indices,
                payload,
                plan.output_payload_dims,
                plan.output_axis_classes,
            );
        }

        if self.tracked_compact_payload_value().is_some()
            || other.tracked_compact_payload_value().is_some()
        {
            let lhs_owned = if self.tracked_compact_payload_value().is_some() {
                None
            } else {
                Some(self.compact_payload_inner()?)
            };
            let rhs_owned = if other.tracked_compact_payload_value().is_some() {
                None
            } else {
                Some(other.compact_payload_inner()?)
            };
            let lhs = if let Some(value) = self.tracked_compact_payload_value() {
                value.payload.as_ref()
            } else {
                lhs_owned
                    .as_ref()
                    .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("missing untracked left compact payload"))?
            };
            let rhs = if let Some(value) = other.tracked_compact_payload_value() {
                value.payload.as_ref()
            } else {
                rhs_owned
                    .as_ref()
                    .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("missing untracked right compact payload"))?
            };
            if lhs.data().dtype() != rhs.data().dtype() {
                return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                    "structured AD contraction requires matching payload dtypes"
                ));
            }
            let (lhs_normalized, lhs_labels) =
                Self::normalize_eager_payload_for_roots(lhs, &lhs_roots)?;
            let (rhs_normalized, rhs_labels) =
                Self::normalize_eager_payload_for_roots(rhs, &rhs_roots)?;
            let lhs_payload = lhs_normalized.as_ref().unwrap_or(lhs);
            let rhs_payload = rhs_normalized.as_ref().unwrap_or(rhs);
            let payload = if scalar_multiply {
                lhs_payload.mul(rhs_payload)?
            } else {
                let subscripts = Self::build_payload_einsum_subscripts(
                    &[lhs_labels, rhs_labels],
                    &plan.output_payload_roots,
                )?;
                eager_einsum_ad(&[lhs_payload, rhs_payload], &subscripts)?
            };
            return Self::from_structured_payload_inner(
                result_indices,
                payload,
                plan.output_payload_dims,
                plan.output_axis_classes,
            );
        }

        let lhs_storage = self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?;
        let rhs_storage = other.storage.materialize(other.indices.len())?;
        let lhs = storage_payload_native_read_input(lhs_storage.as_ref())?;
        let rhs = storage_payload_native_read_input(rhs_storage.as_ref())?;
        if lhs.dtype() != rhs.dtype() {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "structured payload contraction requires matching payload dtypes"
            ));
        }
        let (lhs, lhs_labels) = normalize_payload_read_for_roots(lhs, &lhs_roots)?;
        let (rhs, rhs_labels) = normalize_payload_read_for_roots(rhs, &rhs_roots)?;
        let payload = tensor4all_tensorbackend::einsum_native_tensor_reads(
            &[(&lhs, lhs_labels.as_slice()), (&rhs, rhs_labels.as_slice())],
            &plan.output_payload_roots,
        )?;
        let storage = storage_from_payload_native(
            payload,
            &plan.output_payload_dims,
            plan.output_axis_classes,
        )?;
        Self::from_storage(result_indices, Arc::new(storage))
    }

    fn should_use_structured_payload_contract(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
        let same_payload_dtype = self.storage.is_f64() == other.storage.is_f64()
            && self.storage.is_complex() == other.storage.is_complex();
        same_payload_dtype
            && (self.tracked_compact_payload_value().is_some()
                || other.tracked_compact_payload_value().is_some()
                || self.storage.axis_classes() != Self::dense_axis_classes(self.indices.len())
                || other.storage.axis_classes() != Self::dense_axis_classes(other.indices.len()))
    }

    fn storage_from_native_with_axis_classes(
        native: &NativeTensor,
        axis_classes: &[usize],
        logical_rank: usize,
    ) -> Result<Storage> {
        if Self::is_diag_axis_classes(axis_classes) {
            match native.dtype() {
                DType::F32 | DType::F64 | DType::I32 | DType::I64 | DType::Bool => {
                    Storage::from_diag_col_major(
                        native_tensor_primal_to_diag_f64(native)?,
                        logical_rank,
                    )
                }
                DType::C32 | DType::C64 => Storage::from_diag_col_major(
                    native_tensor_primal_to_diag_c64(native)?,
                    logical_rank,
                ),
            }
        } else {
            native_tensor_primal_to_storage(native)
        }
    }

    fn dense_selected_diag_payload<T: TensorElement + Copy + Zero>(
        payload: Vec<T>,
        kept_dims: &[usize],
        selected_positions: &[usize],
    ) -> Vec<T> {
        let output_len = kept_dims.iter().product::<usize>();
        let mut data = vec![T::zero(); output_len];
        if output_len == 0 {
            return data;
        }

        let Some((&first_position, rest)) = selected_positions.split_first() else {
            return data;
        };
        if rest.iter().any(|&position| position != first_position) {
            return data;
        }

        let value = payload[first_position];
        if kept_dims.is_empty() {
            data[0] = value;
            return data;
        }

        let mut offset = 0usize;
        let mut stride = 1usize;
        for &dim in kept_dims {
            offset += first_position * stride;
            stride *= dim;
        }
        data[offset] = value;
        data
    }

    fn select_diag_indices(
        &self,
        kept_indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        kept_dims: Vec<usize>,
        positions: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        if self.storage.is_f64() {
            let storage = self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?;
            let payload = storage
                .payload_f64_col_major_vec()
                .map_err(anyhow::Error::msg)?;
            let data = Self::dense_selected_diag_payload(payload, &kept_dims, positions);
            Self::from_dense(kept_indices, data)
        } else if self.storage.is_c64() {
            let storage = self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?;
            let payload = storage
                .payload_c64_col_major_vec()
                .map_err(anyhow::Error::msg)?;
            let data = Self::dense_selected_diag_payload(payload, &kept_dims, positions);
            Self::from_dense(kept_indices, data)
        } else {
            Err(anyhow::anyhow!("unsupported diagonal storage scalar type"))
        }
    }

    fn col_major_strides(dims: &[usize]) -> Result<Vec<isize>> {
        let mut strides = Vec::with_capacity(dims.len());
        let mut stride = 1isize;
        for &dim in dims {
            strides.push(stride);
            let dim = isize::try_from(dim)
                .map_err(|_| anyhow::anyhow!("dimension does not fit in isize"))?;
            stride = stride
                .checked_mul(dim)
                .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("column-major stride overflow"))?;
        }
        Ok(strides)
    }

    fn zero_structured_selection<T>(
        kept_indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        kept_dims: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<Self>
    where
        T: TensorElement + Zero,
    {
        let output_len = checked_product(kept_dims)?;
        Self::from_dense(kept_indices, vec![T::zero(); output_len])
    }

    fn select_structured_indices_typed<T>(
        &self,
        payload: Vec<T>,
        kept_axes: &[usize],
        kept_indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        kept_dims: Vec<usize>,
        selected_axes: &[usize],
        positions: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<Self>
    where
        T: TensorElement + StorageScalar + Zero,
    {
        let payload_dims = self.storage.payload_dims();
        let axis_classes = self.storage.axis_classes();
        let payload_rank = payload_dims.len();
        let mut selected_class_positions = vec![None; payload_rank];

        for (&axis, &position) in selected_axes.iter().zip(positions.iter()) {
            let class_id = axis_classes[axis];
            if let Some(existing) = selected_class_positions[class_id] {
                if existing != position {
                    return Self::zero_structured_selection::<T>(kept_indices, &kept_dims);
                }
            } else {
                selected_class_positions[class_id] = Some(position);
            }
        }

        let selected_class_kept = kept_axes
            .iter()
            .any(|&axis| selected_class_positions[axis_classes[axis]].is_some());
        if selected_class_kept {
            return self.select_structured_indices_dense(
                payload,
                kept_axes,
                kept_indices,
                kept_dims,
                &selected_class_positions,
            );
        }

        let mut old_to_new_class = vec![None; payload_rank];
        let mut output_payload_dims = Vec::new();
        let mut output_axis_classes = Vec::with_capacity(kept_axes.len());
        for &axis in kept_axes {
            let class_id = axis_classes[axis];
            let new_class = match old_to_new_class[class_id] {
                Some(new_class) => new_class,
                None => {
                    let new_class = output_payload_dims.len();
                    old_to_new_class[class_id] = Some(new_class);
                    output_payload_dims.push(payload_dims[class_id]);
                    new_class
                }
            };
            output_axis_classes.push(new_class);
        }

        let output_len = checked_product(&output_payload_dims)?;
        let mut output_payload = Vec::with_capacity(output_len);
        for linear in 0..output_len {
            let output_payload_index = decode_col_major_linear(linear, &output_payload_dims)?;
            let mut input_payload_index = vec![0usize; payload_rank];
            for class_id in 0..payload_rank {
                input_payload_index[class_id] =
                    if let Some(position) = selected_class_positions[class_id] {
                        position
                    } else if let Some(new_class) = old_to_new_class[class_id] {
                        output_payload_index[new_class]
                    } else {
                        return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                            "structured payload class {class_id} is neither selected nor kept"
                        ));
                    };
            }
            let input_linear = encode_col_major_linear(&input_payload_index, payload_dims)?;
            output_payload.push(payload[input_linear]);
        }

        let output_strides = Self::col_major_strides(&output_payload_dims)?;
        let storage = Storage::new_structured(
            output_payload,
            output_payload_dims,
            output_strides,
            output_axis_classes,
        )?;
        Self::from_storage(kept_indices, Arc::new(storage))
    }

    fn select_structured_indices_dense<T>(
        &self,
        payload: Vec<T>,
        kept_axes: &[usize],
        kept_indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        kept_dims: Vec<usize>,
        selected_class_positions: &[Option<usize>],
    ) -> Result<Self>
    where
        T: TensorElement + Zero,
    {
        let payload_dims = self.storage.payload_dims();
        let axis_classes = self.storage.axis_classes();
        let output_len = checked_product(&kept_dims)?;
        let mut output = Vec::with_capacity(output_len);

        for linear in 0..output_len {
            let kept_position = decode_col_major_linear(linear, &kept_dims)?;
            let mut input_payload_index = selected_class_positions.to_vec();
            let mut is_structural_zero = false;

            for (&axis, &position) in kept_axes.iter().zip(kept_position.iter()) {
                let class_id = axis_classes[axis];
                match input_payload_index[class_id] {
                    Some(existing) if existing != position => {
                        is_structural_zero = true;
                        break;
                    }
                    Some(_) => {}
                    None => input_payload_index[class_id] = Some(position),
                }
            }

            if is_structural_zero {
                output.push(T::zero());
                continue;
            }

            let input_payload_index = input_payload_index
                .into_iter()
                .enumerate()
                .map(|(class_id, position)| {
                    position.ok_or_else(|| {
                        anyhow::anyhow!(
                            "structured payload class {class_id} is neither selected nor kept"
                        )
                    })
                })
                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
            let input_linear = encode_col_major_linear(&input_payload_index, payload_dims)?;
            output.push(payload[input_linear]);
        }

        Self::from_dense(kept_indices, output)
    }

    fn select_structured_indices(
        &self,
        kept_axes: &[usize],
        kept_indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        kept_dims: Vec<usize>,
        selected_axes: &[usize],
        positions: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        if self.storage.is_f64() {
            let storage = self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?;
            let payload = storage
                .payload_f64_col_major_vec()
                .map_err(anyhow::Error::msg)?;
            self.select_structured_indices_typed(
                payload,
                kept_axes,
                kept_indices,
                kept_dims,
                selected_axes,
                positions,
            )
        } else if self.storage.is_c64() {
            let storage = self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?;
            let payload = storage
                .payload_c64_col_major_vec()
                .map_err(anyhow::Error::msg)?;
            self.select_structured_indices_typed(
                payload,
                kept_axes,
                kept_indices,
                kept_dims,
                selected_axes,
                positions,
            )
        } else {
            Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "unsupported structured storage scalar type"
            ))
        }
    }

    fn validate_storage_matches_indices(indices: &[DynIndex], storage: &Storage) -> Result<()> {
        let dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(indices);
        let storage_dims = storage.logical_dims();
        if storage_dims != dims {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "storage logical dims {:?} do not match indices dims {:?}",
                storage_dims,
                dims
            ));
        }
        if storage.is_diag() {
            Self::validate_diag_dims(&dims)?;
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    fn try_materialized_inner(&self) -> Result<&EagerTensor> {
        if let Some(value) = self.tracked_compact_payload_value() {
            if self.compact_payload_is_logical_dense(&value.payload_dims) {
                return Ok(value.payload.as_ref());
            }
        }
        if let Some(inner) = self.storage.eager() {
            return Ok(inner);
        }
        if self.eager_cache.get().is_none() {
            let dims = self.dims();
            let native = profile_pairwise_contract_section("materialize_storage_to_native", || {
                let storage = self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?;
                Self::seed_native_payload(storage.as_ref(), &dims)
            })
            .context("TensorDynLen materialization failed")?;
            record_pairwise_contract_profile_bytes(
                "materialize_storage_to_native",
                native_tensor_profile_bytes(&native),
            );
            let _ = self.eager_cache.set(Arc::new(EagerTensor::from_tensor_in(
                native,
                default_eager_ctx(),
            )));
        }
        self.eager_cache
            .get()
            .map(|inner| inner.as_ref())
            .ok_or_else(|| {
                anyhow::anyhow!("TensorDynLen materialization cache was not initialized")
            })
    }

    pub(crate) fn as_inner(&self) -> Result<&EagerTensor> {
        self.try_materialized_inner()
    }

    /// Compute dims from `indices` order.
    #[inline]
    fn expected_dims_from_indices(indices: &[DynIndex]) -> Vec<usize> {
        indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.dim()).collect()
    }

    /// Get dims in the current `indices` order.
    ///
    /// This is computed on-demand from `indices` (single source of truth).
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let k = DynIndex::new_dyn(4);
    /// let t = TensorDynLen::from_dense(
    ///     vec![i, j, k],
    ///     vec![0.0; 24],
    /// ).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(t.dims(), vec![2, 3, 4]);
    /// ```
    pub fn dims(&self) -> Vec<usize> {
        Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&self.indices)
    }

    /// Select fixed coordinates for tensor indices and drop those axes.
    ///
    /// The `selected_indices` slice identifies tensor axes by index identity,
    /// and `positions` gives the zero-based coordinate to take on each
    /// selected axis. Unselected indices are preserved in their original order.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `selected_indices` - Indices to fix and remove from the result. Each
    ///   index must appear exactly once in this tensor.
    /// * `positions` - Coordinates for `selected_indices`. Each coordinate must
    ///   be less than the corresponding index dimension.
    ///
    /// # Returns
    ///
    /// A tensor over the unselected indices. Selecting no indices returns a
    /// clone of the original tensor. Selecting all indices returns a rank-0
    /// scalar tensor. Diagonal and structured tensors are sliced from their
    /// compact payload without materializing the original full tensor; the
    /// result keeps structured storage when the remaining logical axes can
    /// still be represented by axis classes.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns an error if the argument lengths differ, a selected index is not
    /// present, a selected index is duplicated, or a coordinate is out of range.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let data = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0];
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone(), j.clone()], data).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let selected = tensor.select_indices(&[j], &[1]).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(selected.dims(), vec![2]);
    /// assert_eq!(selected.to_vec::<f64>().unwrap(), vec![3.0, 4.0]);
    /// ```
    pub fn select_indices(
        &self,
        selected_indices: &[DynIndex],
        positions: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        if selected_indices.len() != positions.len() {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "selected_indices length {} does not match positions length {}",
                selected_indices.len(),
                positions.len()
            ));
        }
        if selected_indices.is_empty() {
            return Ok(self.clone());
        }

        let mut selected_axes = Vec::with_capacity(selected_indices.len());
        let mut seen_axes = HashSet::with_capacity(selected_indices.len());
        for (selected, &position) in selected_indices.iter().zip(positions.iter()) {
            let axis = self
                .indices
                .iter()
                .position(|index| index == selected)
                .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("selected index is not present in tensor"))?;
            if !seen_axes.insert(axis) {
                return Err(anyhow::anyhow!("selected index appears more than once"));
            }
            let dim = self.indices[axis].dim();
            if position >= dim {
                return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                    "selected coordinate {position} is out of range for axis {axis} with dim {dim}"
                ));
            }
            selected_axes.push(axis);
        }

        let kept_axes = self
            .indices
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .filter(|(axis, _)| !seen_axes.contains(axis))
            .map(|(axis, _)| axis)
            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
        let kept_indices = kept_axes
            .iter()
            .map(|&axis| self.indices[axis].clone())
            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
        let kept_dims = kept_axes
            .iter()
            .map(|&axis| self.indices[axis].dim())
            .collect::<Vec<_>>();

        if self.storage.storage_kind() == StorageKind::Diagonal {
            return self.select_diag_indices(kept_indices, kept_dims, positions);
        }
        if self.storage.storage_kind() == StorageKind::Structured {
            return self.select_structured_indices(
                &kept_axes,
                kept_indices,
                kept_dims,
                &selected_axes,
                positions,
            );
        }
        if self.storage.storage_kind() != StorageKind::Dense {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "select_indices got unsupported storage kind {:?}",
                self.storage.storage_kind()
            ));
        }

        let rank = self.indices.len();
        let mut starts = vec![0_i64; rank];
        let mut slice_sizes = self.dims();
        for (&axis, &position) in selected_axes.iter().zip(positions.iter()) {
            starts[axis] = i64::try_from(position)
                .map_err(|_| anyhow::anyhow!("selected coordinate does not fit in i64"))?;
            slice_sizes[axis] = 1;
        }

        let starts_tensor = EagerTensor::from_tensor_in(
            NativeTensor::from_vec_col_major(vec![rank], starts),
            default_eager_ctx(),
        );
        let sliced = self
            .try_materialized_inner()?
            .dynamic_slice(&starts_tensor, &slice_sizes)?;
        Self::from_inner(kept_indices, sliced.reshape(&kept_dims)?)
    }

    /// Stack tensors along a newly inserted index.
    ///
    /// Each input must have exactly the same index order and dimensions. The
    /// `new_index` dimension must match the number of input tensors. The
    /// `axis` argument follows tenferro/PyTorch-style insertion semantics:
    /// `0` inserts before the first existing axis and `-1` appends a trailing
    /// axis. Use `axis = -1` for batched contractions because tenferro uses
    /// trailing batch dimensions as the canonical batched-GEMM layout.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns an error if no tensors are provided, the new index dimension
    /// does not match the number of tensors, an input has a different index
    /// order, `axis` is outside the valid insertion range, or a tracked
    /// structured-AD tensor uses compact storage that would need dense
    /// materialization.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let batch = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let a = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], vec![1.0_f64, 2.0]).unwrap();
    /// let b = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], vec![3.0_f64, 4.0]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let stacked = TensorDynLen::stack_along_new_index(&[&a, &b], batch.clone(), -1).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(stacked.indices(), &[i, batch]);
    /// assert_eq!(stacked.to_vec::<f64>().unwrap(), vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]);
    /// ```
    pub fn stack_along_new_index(
        tensors: &[&Self],
        new_index: DynIndex,
        axis: isize,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        let first = tensors
            .first()
            .copied()
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("stack_along_new_index requires at least one tensor"))?;
        anyhow::ensure!(
            new_index.dim() == tensors.len(),
            "stack_along_new_index: new index dim {} does not match tensor count {}",
            new_index.dim(),
            tensors.len()
        );

        let base_indices = first.indices.clone();
        for tensor in tensors.iter().copied().skip(1) {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                tensor.indices == base_indices,
                "stack_along_new_index: input tensors must have identical index order"
            );
        }
        for &tensor in tensors {
            tensor.ensure_shape_packing_preserves_ad("stack_along_new_index")?;
        }

        let insert_axis =
            Self::normalize_insert_axis("stack_along_new_index", axis, base_indices.len())?;
        let mut result_indices = base_indices;
        result_indices.insert(insert_axis, new_index);

        let inner_refs = tensors
            .iter()
            .map(|tensor| tensor.try_materialized_inner())
            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
        let stacked = EagerTensor::stack(&inner_refs, axis)?;
        Self::from_inner(result_indices, stacked)
    }

    /// Select positions along one index and replace it with a new index.
    ///
    /// This is the retained-axis counterpart to [`Self::select_indices`]:
    /// instead of fixing one coordinate and removing the index, it gathers a
    /// list of positions and keeps the gathered axis under `target_index`.
    /// Repeated positions are allowed; reverse-mode AD accumulates repeated
    /// cotangents through tenferro's scatter-add gather transpose.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns an error if `source_index` is not present, `target_index.dim()`
    /// differs from `positions.len()`, or any position is out of range for the
    /// source index. A tracked structured-AD tensor with compact storage is
    /// also rejected because dense materialization would detach gradients.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let source = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let target = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_dense(
    ///     vec![source.clone()],
    ///     vec![10.0_f64, 20.0, 30.0],
    /// ).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let selected = tensor.index_select(&source, target.clone(), &[2, 0]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(selected.indices(), &[target]);
    /// assert_eq!(selected.to_vec::<f64>().unwrap(), vec![30.0, 10.0]);
    /// ```
    pub fn index_select(
        &self,
        source_index: &DynIndex,
        target_index: DynIndex,
        positions: &[usize],
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            target_index.dim() == positions.len(),
            "index_select: target index dim {} does not match position count {}",
            target_index.dim(),
            positions.len()
        );
        let axis = self
            .indices
            .iter()
            .position(|index| index == source_index)
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("index_select: source index is not present"))?;
        let source_dim = self.indices[axis].dim();
        for &position in positions {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                position < source_dim,
                "index_select: position {position} is out of range for source dim {source_dim}"
            );
        }
        self.ensure_shape_packing_preserves_ad("index_select")?;

        let axis = isize::try_from(axis)
            .map_err(|_| anyhow::anyhow!("index_select: axis does not fit in isize"))?;
        let selected = self
            .try_materialized_inner()?
            .index_select(axis, positions)?;
        let mut result_indices = self.indices.clone();
        result_indices[axis as usize] = target_index;
        Self::from_inner(result_indices, selected)
    }

    /// Create a new tensor with dynamic rank.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the storage logical dimensions do not match the
    /// supplied indices, if diagonal storage has unequal logical dimensions,
    /// or if duplicate indices are provided.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    /// use tensor4all_tensorbackend::Storage;
    /// use std::sync::Arc;
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let storage = Arc::new(Storage::new_dense::<f64>(3).unwrap());
    /// let t = TensorDynLen::new(vec![i], storage).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(t.dims(), vec![3]);
    /// ```
    pub fn new(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, storage: Arc<Storage>) -> Result<Self> {
        Self::from_storage(indices, storage)
    }

    /// Create a new tensor with dynamic rank, automatically computing dimensions from indices.
    ///
    /// This is a convenience constructor that extracts dimensions from indices using `IndexLike::dim()`.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the storage logical dimensions do not match the
    /// supplied indices, if diagonal storage has unequal logical dimensions,
    /// or if duplicate indices are provided.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    /// use tensor4all_tensorbackend::Storage;
    /// use std::sync::Arc;
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(4);
    /// let storage = Arc::new(Storage::new_dense::<f64>(4).unwrap());
    /// let t = TensorDynLen::from_indices(vec![i], storage).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(t.dims(), vec![4]);
    /// ```
    pub fn from_indices(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, storage: Arc<Storage>) -> Result<Self> {
        Self::new(indices, storage)
    }

    /// Create a tensor from explicit compact storage.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    /// use tensor4all_tensorbackend::Storage;
    /// use std::sync::Arc;
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let storage = Arc::new(Storage::new_diag(vec![1.0_f64, 2.0]).unwrap());
    /// let t = TensorDynLen::from_storage(vec![i, j], storage).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(t.dims(), vec![2, 2]);
    /// ```
    pub fn from_storage(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, storage: Arc<Storage>) -> Result<Self> {
        Self::validate_indices(&indices)?;
        Self::validate_storage_matches_indices(&indices, storage.as_ref())?;
        Ok(Self {
            indices,
            storage: TensorDynLenStorage::from_storage(storage),
            structured_ad: None,
            eager_cache: Self::empty_eager_cache(),
        })
    }

    /// Create a tensor from explicit structured storage.
    ///
    /// This is an alias for [`TensorDynLen::from_storage`] with a name that
    /// emphasizes that compact structured metadata is preserved.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns an error if the storage logical dimensions do not match the
    /// supplied indices, or if duplicate indices are provided.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use std::sync::Arc;
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    /// use tensor4all_tensorbackend::{Storage, StorageKind};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let storage = Arc::new(Storage::from_diag_col_major(vec![1.0_f64, 2.0], 2).unwrap());
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_structured_storage(vec![i, j], storage).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(tensor.storage().storage_kind(), StorageKind::Diagonal);
    /// ```
    pub fn from_structured_storage(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, storage: Arc<Storage>) -> Result<Self> {
        Self::from_storage(indices, storage)
    }

    /// Create a tensor from a native tenferro payload.
    pub(crate) fn from_native(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, native: NativeTensor) -> Result<Self> {
        let axis_classes = Self::dense_axis_classes(indices.len());
        Self::from_native_with_axis_classes(indices, native, axis_classes)
    }

    pub(crate) fn from_native_with_axis_classes(
        indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        native: NativeTensor,
        axis_classes: Vec<usize>,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(
            indices,
            EagerTensor::from_tensor_in(native, default_eager_ctx()),
            axis_classes,
        )
    }

    pub(crate) fn from_inner(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, inner: EagerTensor) -> Result<Self> {
        let axis_classes = Self::dense_axis_classes(indices.len());
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(indices, inner, axis_classes)
    }

    pub(crate) fn from_diag_inner(
        indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        payload_inner: EagerTensor,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        let dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&indices);
        Self::validate_indices(&indices)?;
        Self::validate_diag_dims(&dims)?;
        Self::validate_diag_payload_len(payload_inner.data().shape().iter().product(), &dims)?;
        let axis_classes = Self::diag_axis_classes(dims.len());
        let diag_inner = payload_inner.embed_diag(0, 1)?;
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(indices, diag_inner, axis_classes)
    }

    pub(crate) fn from_inner_with_axis_classes(
        indices: Vec<DynIndex>,
        inner: EagerTensor,
        axis_classes: Vec<usize>,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        let dims = profile_pairwise_contract_section("from_inner_expected_dims", || {
            Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&indices)
        });
        profile_pairwise_contract_section("from_inner_validate_indices", || {
            Self::validate_indices(&indices)
        })?;
        if dims != inner.data().shape() {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "native payload dims {:?} do not match indices dims {:?}",
                inner.data().shape(),
                dims
            ));
        }
        if Self::is_diag_axis_classes(&axis_classes) {
            profile_pairwise_contract_section("from_inner_validate_diag_dims", || {
                Self::validate_diag_dims(&dims)
            })?;
        }
        let (storage, eager_cache) = if axis_classes == Self::dense_axis_classes(indices.len()) {
            (
                TensorDynLenStorage::from_eager_dense(inner, indices.len()),
                Self::empty_eager_cache(),
            )
        } else {
            let storage = profile_pairwise_contract_section("from_inner_storage_snapshot", || {
                Self::storage_from_native_with_axis_classes(
                    inner.data(),
                    &axis_classes,
                    indices.len(),
                )
            })?;
            record_pairwise_contract_profile_bytes(
                "from_inner_storage_snapshot",
                native_tensor_profile_bytes(inner.data()),
            );
            (
                TensorDynLenStorage::from_storage(Arc::new(storage)),
                profile_pairwise_contract_section("from_inner_eager_cache", || {
                    Self::eager_cache_with(inner)
                }),
            )
        };
        Ok(Self {
            indices,
            storage,
            structured_ad: None,
            eager_cache,
        })
    }

    /// Borrow the indices.
    pub fn indices(&self) -> &[DynIndex] {
        &self.indices
    }

    /// Borrow the native payload.
    pub(crate) fn as_native(&self) -> Result<&NativeTensor> {
        Ok(self.try_materialized_inner()?.data())
    }

    /// Enable reverse-mode AD tracking on this tensor by creating a tracked leaf.
    pub fn enable_grad(self) -> Result<Self> {
        let materialized = self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?;
        let payload = storage_payload_native(materialized.as_ref())
            .context("TensorDynLen::enable_grad failed")?;
        let payload_dims = self.storage.payload_dims().to_vec();
        let axis_classes = self.storage.axis_classes().to_vec();
        Ok(Self {
            indices: self.indices,
            storage: self.storage,
            structured_ad: Some(Arc::new(StructuredAdValue {
                payload: Arc::new(EagerTensor::requires_grad_in(payload, default_eager_ctx())),
                payload_dims,
                axis_classes,
            })),
            eager_cache: Self::empty_eager_cache(),
        })
    }

    /// Report whether this tensor participates in gradient tracking.
    pub fn tracks_grad(&self) -> bool {
        self.structured_ad
            .as_ref()
            .is_some_and(|value| value.payload.tracks_grad())
            || self.storage.eager().is_some_and(EagerTensor::tracks_grad)
            || self
                .eager_cache
                .get()
                .is_some_and(|inner| inner.tracks_grad())
    }

    /// Return the accumulated gradient, if one has been stored.
    pub fn grad(&self) -> Result<Option<Self>> {
        if let Some(value) = self.tracked_compact_payload_value() {
            return value
                .payload
                .grad()
                .map(|grad| {
                    let storage = storage_from_payload_native(
                        grad.as_ref().clone(),
                        &value.payload_dims,
                        value.axis_classes.clone(),
                    )?;
                    Self::from_storage(self.indices.clone(), Arc::new(storage))
                })
                .transpose();
        }
        self.try_materialized_inner()?
            .grad()
            .map(|grad| {
                Self::from_native_with_axis_classes(
                    self.indices.clone(),
                    grad.as_ref().clone(),
                    self.storage.axis_classes().to_vec(),
                )
            })
            .transpose()
    }

    /// Clear the accumulated gradient stored for this tensor.
    pub fn clear_grad(&self) -> Result<()> {
        if let Some(value) = self.tracked_compact_payload_value() {
            value.payload.clear_grad();
        }
        if let Some(inner) = self.storage.eager() {
            inner.clear_grad();
        }
        if let Some(inner) = self.eager_cache.get() {
            inner.clear_grad();
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Run reverse-mode autodiff from this scalar tensor.
    pub fn backward(&self) -> Result<()> {
        if let Some(value) = self.tracked_compact_payload_value() {
            return value
                .payload
                .backward()
                .map(|_| ())
                .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("TensorDynLen::backward failed: {e}"));
        }
        self.try_materialized_inner()?
            .backward()
            .map(|_| ())
            .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("TensorDynLen::backward failed: {e}"))
    }

    /// Detach this tensor from the reverse graph.
    pub fn detach(&self) -> Result<Self> {
        if self.tracked_compact_payload_value().is_some() {
            return Self::from_storage(
                self.indices.clone(),
                self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?,
            );
        }
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(
            self.indices.clone(),
            self.try_materialized_inner()?.detach(),
            self.storage.axis_classes().to_vec(),
        )
    }

    /// Check if this tensor is already in canonical form.
    pub fn is_simple(&self) -> bool {
        true
    }

    /// Materialize the primal snapshot as storage.
    pub fn to_storage(&self) -> Result<Arc<Storage>> {
        self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())
    }

    /// Returns the authoritative compact storage.
    pub fn storage(&self) -> Arc<Storage> {
        self.storage
            .materialize(self.indices.len())
            .expect("TensorDynLen storage materialization failed")
    }

    /// Sum all elements, returning `AnyScalar`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let t = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i], vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0]).unwrap();
    /// let s = t.sum().unwrap();
    /// assert!((s.real() - 6.0).abs() < 1e-12);
    /// ```
    pub fn sum(&self) -> Result<AnyScalar> {
        if self.indices.is_empty() {
            return AnyScalar::from_tensor(self.clone());
        }
        let axes: Vec<usize> = (0..self.indices.len()).collect();
        let reduced = self.try_materialized_inner()?.reduce_sum(&axes)?;
        AnyScalar::from_tensor(Self::from_inner(Vec::new(), reduced)?)
    }

    /// Extract the scalar value from a 0-dimensional tensor (or 1-element tensor).
    ///
    /// This is similar to Julia's `only()` function.
    ///
    /// # Panics
    ///
    /// Panics if the tensor has more than one element.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{TensorDynLen, AnyScalar};
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// // Create a scalar tensor (0 dimensions, 1 element)
    /// let indices: Vec<Index<DynId>> = vec![];
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(indices, vec![42.0]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(tensor.only().unwrap().real(), 42.0);
    /// ```
    pub fn only(&self) -> Result<AnyScalar> {
        let dims = self.dims();
        let total_size = checked_product(&dims)?;
        anyhow::ensure!(
            total_size == 1 || dims.is_empty(),
            "only() requires a scalar tensor (1 element), got {} elements with dims {:?}",
            if dims.is_empty() { 1 } else { total_size },
            dims
        );
        self.sum()
    }

    /// Permute the tensor dimensions using the given new indices order.
    ///
    /// This is the main permutation method that takes the desired new indices
    /// and automatically computes the corresponding permutation of dimensions
    /// and data. The new indices must be a permutation of the original indices
    /// (matched by ID).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `new_indices` - The desired new indices order. Must be a permutation
    ///   of `self.indices` (matched by ID).
    ///
    /// # Panics
    /// Panics if `new_indices.len() != self.indices.len()`, if any index ID
    /// doesn't match, or if there are duplicate indices.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// // Create a 2×3 tensor
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    /// let indices = vec![i.clone(), j.clone()];
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(indices, vec![0.0; 6]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Permute to 3×2: swap the two dimensions by providing new indices order
    /// let permuted = tensor.permute_indices(&[j, i]).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(permuted.dims(), vec![3, 2]);
    /// ```
    pub fn permute_indices(&self, new_indices: &[DynIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
        // Compute permutation by matching IDs
        let perm = compute_permutation_from_indices(&self.indices, new_indices)?;
        if perm.iter().copied().eq(0..perm.len()) {
            return Ok(Self {
                indices: new_indices.to_vec(),
                storage: self.storage.clone(),
                structured_ad: self.structured_ad.clone(),
                eager_cache: Arc::clone(&self.eager_cache),
            });
        }

        let permuted = self.try_materialized_inner()?.transpose(&perm)?;
        let axis_classes = self.permute_axis_classes(&perm);
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(new_indices.to_vec(), permuted, axis_classes)
    }

    /// Permute the tensor dimensions, returning a new tensor.
    ///
    /// This method reorders the indices, dimensions, and data according to the
    /// given permutation. The permutation specifies which old axis each new
    /// axis corresponds to: `new_axis[i] = old_axis[perm[i]]`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `perm` - The permutation: `perm[i]` is the old axis index for new axis `i`
    ///
    /// # Panics
    /// Panics if `perm.len() != self.indices.len()` or if the permutation is invalid.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// // Create a 2×3 tensor
    /// let indices = vec![
    ///     Index::new_dyn(2),
    ///     Index::new_dyn(3),
    /// ];
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(indices, vec![0.0; 6]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Permute to 3×2: swap the two dimensions
    /// let permuted = tensor.permute(&[1, 0]).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(permuted.dims(), vec![3, 2]);
    /// ```
    pub fn permute(&self, perm: &[usize]) -> Result<Self> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            perm.len() == self.indices.len(),
            "permutation length must match tensor rank"
        );
        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
        for &axis in perm {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                axis < self.indices.len(),
                "permutation axis {axis} out of range"
            );
            anyhow::ensure!(seen.insert(axis), "duplicate axis {axis} in permutation");
        }
        if perm.iter().copied().eq(0..perm.len()) {
            return Ok(self.clone());
        }

        // Permute indices
        let new_indices: Vec<DynIndex> = perm.iter().map(|&i| self.indices[i].clone()).collect();
        let permuted = self.try_materialized_inner()?.transpose(perm)?;
        let axis_classes = self.permute_axis_classes(perm);
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(new_indices, permuted, axis_classes)
    }

    pub(crate) fn try_contract_pairwise_default(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<Self> {
        self.try_contract_pairwise_default_with_options(other, PairwiseContractionOptions::new())
    }

    pub(crate) fn try_contract_pairwise_default_with_options(
        &self,
        other: &Self,
        options: PairwiseContractionOptions,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        let self_indices = profile_pairwise_contract_section("operand_indices", || {
            self.operand_indices_for_contraction(options.lhs_conj)
        });
        let other_indices = profile_pairwise_contract_section("operand_indices", || {
            other.operand_indices_for_contraction(options.rhs_conj)
        });
        let self_dims = profile_pairwise_contract_section("expected_dims", || {
            Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&self_indices)
        });
        let other_dims = profile_pairwise_contract_section("expected_dims", || {
            Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&other_indices)
        });
        let spec = profile_pairwise_contract_section("prepare_contraction", || {
            prepare_contraction(&self_indices, &self_dims, &other_indices, &other_dims)
        })
        .context("contraction preparation failed")?;
        let result_axis_classes = profile_pairwise_contract_section("result_axis_classes", || {
            Self::binary_contraction_axis_classes(
                self.storage.axis_classes(),
                &spec.axes_a,
                other.storage.axis_classes(),
                &spec.axes_b,
            )
        });

        if profile_pairwise_contract_section("structured_check", || {
            self.should_use_structured_payload_contract(other)
        }) {
            if options.has_conj() {
                let lhs = if options.lhs_conj {
                    self.conj()
                } else {
                    self.clone()
                };
                let rhs = if options.rhs_conj {
                    other.conj()
                } else {
                    other.clone()
                };
                return profile_pairwise_contract_section("structured_conj_fallback", || {
                    lhs.try_contract_pairwise_default(&rhs)
                });
            }
            return profile_pairwise_contract_section("structured_payload_contract", || {
                self.contract_structured_payloads(
                    other,
                    spec.result_indices.into_vec(),
                    &spec.axes_a,
                    &spec.axes_b,
                )
            });
        }

        if self.indices.is_empty() && other.indices.is_empty() {
            if options.has_conj() {
                let lhs = if options.lhs_conj {
                    self.conj()
                } else {
                    self.clone()
                };
                let rhs = if options.rhs_conj {
                    other.conj()
                } else {
                    other.clone()
                };
                return lhs.try_contract_pairwise_default(&rhs);
            }
            let result = profile_pairwise_contract_section("scalar_mul", || {
                Ok::<_, anyhow::Error>(
                    self.try_materialized_inner()?
                        .mul(other.try_materialized_inner()?)?,
                )
            })?;
            return profile_pairwise_contract_section("from_inner", || {
                Self::from_inner(spec.result_indices.into_vec(), result)
            });
        }

        let self_native = profile_pairwise_contract_section("as_native", || self.as_native())?;
        let other_native = profile_pairwise_contract_section("as_native", || other.as_native())?;
        if self_native.dtype() != other_native.dtype() {
            if options.has_conj() {
                let lhs = if options.lhs_conj {
                    self.conj()
                } else {
                    self.clone()
                };
                let rhs = if options.rhs_conj {
                    other.conj()
                } else {
                    other.clone()
                };
                return lhs.try_contract_pairwise_default(&rhs);
            }
            let result_native = profile_pairwise_contract_section("native_contract", || {
                contract_native_tensor(self_native, &spec.axes_a, other_native, &spec.axes_b)
            })?;
            return profile_pairwise_contract_section("from_native", || {
                Self::from_native_with_axis_classes(
                    spec.result_indices.into_vec(),
                    result_native,
                    result_axis_classes,
                )
            });
        }

        let config = profile_pairwise_contract_section("build_dot_general_config", || {
            Self::binary_dot_general_config(&spec.axes_a, &spec.axes_b)
        })?;
        let result = profile_pairwise_contract_section("dot_general_with_conj", || {
            let lhs = profile_pairwise_contract_section("lhs_try_materialized_inner", || {
                self.try_materialized_inner()
            })?;
            let rhs = profile_pairwise_contract_section("rhs_try_materialized_inner", || {
                other.try_materialized_inner()
            })?;
            profile_pairwise_contract_section("dot_general_execute", || {
                lhs.dot_general_with_conj(rhs, &config, options.lhs_conj, options.rhs_conj)
            })
            .map_err(anyhow::Error::from)
        })?;
        record_pairwise_contract_profile_bytes(
            "dot_general_output",
            native_tensor_profile_bytes(result.data()),
        );
        profile_pairwise_contract_section("from_inner_axis_classes", || {
            Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(
                spec.result_indices.into_vec(),
                result,
                result_axis_classes,
            )
        })
    }

    pub(crate) fn try_tensordot_pairwise_explicit(
        &self,
        other: &Self,
        pairs: &[(DynIndex, DynIndex)],
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        use crate::index_ops::ContractionError;

        let self_dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&self.indices);
        let other_dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&other.indices);
        let spec = prepare_contraction_pairs(
            &self.indices,
            &self_dims,
            &other.indices,
            &other_dims,
            pairs,
        )
        .map_err(|e| match e {
            ContractionError::NoCommonIndices => {
                anyhow::anyhow!("tensordot: No pairs specified for contraction")
            }
            ContractionError::BatchContractionNotImplemented => anyhow::anyhow!(
                "tensordot: Common index found but not in contraction pairs. \
                         Batch contraction is not yet implemented."
            ),
            ContractionError::IndexNotFound { tensor } => {
                anyhow::anyhow!("tensordot: Index not found in {} tensor", tensor)
            }
            ContractionError::DimensionMismatch {
                pos_a,
                pos_b,
                dim_a,
                dim_b,
            } => anyhow::anyhow!(
                "tensordot: Dimension mismatch: self[{}]={} != other[{}]={}",
                pos_a,
                dim_a,
                pos_b,
                dim_b
            ),
            ContractionError::DuplicateAxis { tensor, pos } => {
                anyhow::anyhow!("tensordot: Duplicate axis {} in {} tensor", pos, tensor)
            }
        })?;
        let result_axis_classes = Self::binary_contraction_axis_classes(
            self.storage.axis_classes(),
            &spec.axes_a,
            other.storage.axis_classes(),
            &spec.axes_b,
        );

        if self.should_use_structured_payload_contract(other) {
            return self.contract_structured_payloads(
                other,
                spec.result_indices.into_vec(),
                &spec.axes_a,
                &spec.axes_b,
            );
        }

        if self.indices.is_empty() && other.indices.is_empty() {
            let result = self
                .try_materialized_inner()?
                .mul(other.try_materialized_inner()?)
                .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("tensordot scalar multiply failed: {e}"))?;
            return Self::from_inner(spec.result_indices.into_vec(), result);
        }

        let self_native = self.as_native()?;
        let other_native = other.as_native()?;
        if self_native.dtype() != other_native.dtype() {
            let result_native =
                contract_native_tensor(self_native, &spec.axes_a, other_native, &spec.axes_b)?;
            return Self::from_native_with_axis_classes(
                spec.result_indices.into_vec(),
                result_native,
                result_axis_classes,
            );
        }

        let subscripts = Self::build_binary_einsum_subscripts(
            self.indices.len(),
            &spec.axes_a,
            other.indices.len(),
            &spec.axes_b,
        )?;
        let result = eager_einsum_ad(
            &[
                self.try_materialized_inner()?,
                other.try_materialized_inner()?,
            ],
            &subscripts,
        )
        .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("tensordot failed: {e}"))?;
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(
            spec.result_indices.into_vec(),
            result,
            result_axis_classes,
        )
    }

    pub(crate) fn try_outer_product_pairwise(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<Self> {
        use anyhow::Context;

        // Check for common indices - outer product should have none
        let common_positions = common_ind_positions(&self.indices, &other.indices);
        if !common_positions.is_empty() {
            let common_ids: Vec<_> = common_positions
                .iter()
                .map(|(pos_a, _)| self.indices[*pos_a].id())
                .collect();
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "outer_product: tensors have common indices {:?}. \
                 Use tensordot to contract common indices, or use sim() to replace \
                 indices with fresh IDs before computing outer product.",
                common_ids
            ))
            .context("outer_product: common indices found");
        }

        // Build result indices and dimensions
        let mut result_indices = self.indices.clone();
        result_indices.extend(other.indices.iter().cloned());
        let result_axis_classes = Self::binary_contraction_axis_classes(
            self.storage.axis_classes(),
            &[],
            other.storage.axis_classes(),
            &[],
        );
        if self.should_use_structured_payload_contract(other) {
            return self.contract_structured_payloads(other, result_indices, &[], &[]);
        }
        let self_native = self.as_native()?;
        let other_native = other.as_native()?;
        if self_native.dtype() != other_native.dtype() {
            let result_native = contract_native_tensor(self_native, &[], other_native, &[])?;
            return Self::from_native_with_axis_classes(
                result_indices,
                result_native,
                result_axis_classes,
            );
        }

        let subscripts = Self::build_binary_einsum_subscripts(
            self.indices.len(),
            &[],
            other.indices.len(),
            &[],
        )?;
        let result = eager_einsum_ad(
            &[
                self.try_materialized_inner()?,
                other.try_materialized_inner()?,
            ],
            &subscripts,
        )
        .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("outer_product failed: {e}"))?;
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(result_indices, result, result_axis_classes)
    }
}

// ============================================================================
// Random tensor generation
// ============================================================================

impl TensorDynLen {
    /// Create a random tensor with values from standard normal distribution (generic over scalar type).
    ///
    /// For `f64`, each element is drawn from the standard normal distribution.
    /// For `Complex64`, both real and imaginary parts are drawn independently.
    ///
    /// # Type Parameters
    /// * `T` - The scalar element type (must implement [`RandomScalar`])
    /// * `R` - The random number generator type
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `rng` - Random number generator
    /// * `indices` - The indices for the tensor
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    /// use rand::SeedableRng;
    /// use rand_chacha::ChaCha8Rng;
    ///
    /// let mut rng = ChaCha8Rng::seed_from_u64(42);
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::random::<f64, _>(&mut rng, vec![i, j]).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(tensor.dims(), vec![2, 3]);
    /// ```
    pub fn random<T: RandomScalar, R: Rng>(rng: &mut R, indices: Vec<DynIndex>) -> Result<Self> {
        let dims: Vec<usize> = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.dim()).collect();
        let size = checked_product(&dims)?;
        let data: Vec<T> = (0..size).map(|_| T::random_value(rng)).collect();
        Self::from_dense(indices, data)
    }
}

impl TensorDynLen {
    /// Add two tensors element-wise.
    ///
    /// The tensors must have the same index set (matched by ID). If the indices
    /// are in a different order, the other tensor will be permuted to match `self`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `other` - The tensor to add
    ///
    /// # Returns
    /// A new tensor representing `self + other`, or an error if:
    /// - The tensors have different index sets
    /// - The dimensions don't match
    /// - Storage types are incompatible
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    ///
    /// let indices_a = vec![i.clone(), j.clone()];
    /// let data_a = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0];
    /// let tensor_a: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(indices_a, data_a).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let indices_b = vec![i.clone(), j.clone()];
    /// let data_b = vec![1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0];
    /// let tensor_b: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(indices_b, data_b).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let sum = tensor_a.add(&tensor_b).unwrap();
    /// // sum = [[2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7]]
    /// ```
    pub fn add(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<Self> {
        // Validate that both tensors have the same number of indices
        if self.indices.len() != other.indices.len() {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "Index count mismatch: self has {} indices, other has {}",
                self.indices.len(),
                other.indices.len()
            ));
        }

        // Validate that both tensors have the same set of indices
        let self_set: HashSet<_> = self.indices.iter().collect();
        let other_set: HashSet<_> = other.indices.iter().collect();

        if self_set != other_set {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "Index set mismatch: tensors must have the same indices"
            ));
        }

        // Permute other to match self's index order (no-op if already aligned)
        let other_aligned = other.permute_indices(&self.indices)?;

        // Validate dimensions match after alignment
        let self_expected_dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&self.indices);
        let other_expected_dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&other_aligned.indices);
        if self_expected_dims != other_expected_dims {
            use crate::TagSetLike;
            let fmt = |indices: &[DynIndex]| -> Vec<String> {
                indices
                    .iter()
                    .map(|idx| {
                        let tags: Vec<String> = idx.tags().iter().collect();
                        format!("{:?}(dim={},tags={:?})", idx.id(), idx.dim(), tags)
                    })
                    .collect()
            };
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "Dimension mismatch after alignment.\n\
                 self: dims={:?}, indices(order)={:?}\n\
                 other_aligned: dims={:?}, indices(order)={:?}",
                self_expected_dims,
                fmt(&self.indices),
                other_expected_dims,
                fmt(&other_aligned.indices)
            ));
        }

        self.axpby(
            AnyScalar::new_real(1.0),
            &other_aligned,
            AnyScalar::new_real(1.0),
        )
    }

    /// Compute a linear combination: `a * self + b * other`.
    ///
    /// Both tensors must have the same set of indices (matched by ID).
    /// If indices are in a different order, `other` is automatically permuted
    /// to match `self`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{AnyScalar, DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let a = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], vec![1.0, 2.0]).unwrap();
    /// let b = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], vec![3.0, 4.0]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// // 2*a + 3*b = [2+9, 4+12] = [11, 16]
    /// let result = a.axpby(AnyScalar::new_real(2.0), &b, AnyScalar::new_real(3.0)).unwrap();
    /// let data = result.to_vec::<f64>().unwrap();
    /// assert!((data[0] - 11.0).abs() < 1e-12);
    /// assert!((data[1] - 16.0).abs() < 1e-12);
    /// ```
    pub fn axpby(&self, a: AnyScalar, other: &Self, b: AnyScalar) -> Result<Self> {
        // Validate that both tensors have the same number of indices.
        if self.indices.len() != other.indices.len() {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "Index count mismatch: self has {} indices, other has {}",
                self.indices.len(),
                other.indices.len()
            ));
        }

        // Validate that both tensors have the same set of indices.
        let self_set: HashSet<_> = self.indices.iter().collect();
        let other_set: HashSet<_> = other.indices.iter().collect();
        if self_set != other_set {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "Index set mismatch: tensors must have the same indices"
            ));
        }

        // Align other tensor axis order to self.
        let other_aligned = other.permute_indices(&self.indices)?;

        // Validate dimensions match after alignment.
        let self_expected_dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&self.indices);
        let other_expected_dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&other_aligned.indices);
        if self_expected_dims != other_expected_dims {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "Dimension mismatch after alignment: self={:?}, other_aligned={:?}",
                self_expected_dims,
                other_expected_dims
            ));
        }

        let axis_classes = if self.storage.axis_classes() == other_aligned.storage.axis_classes() {
            self.storage.axis_classes().to_vec()
        } else {
            Self::dense_axis_classes(self.indices.len())
        };

        let same_compact_layout = self.storage.payload_dims()
            == other_aligned.storage.payload_dims()
            && self.storage.payload_strides_vec() == other_aligned.storage.payload_strides_vec()
            && self.storage.axis_classes() == other_aligned.storage.axis_classes();
        if same_compact_layout
            && !self.tracks_grad()
            && !other_aligned.tracks_grad()
            && !a.tracks_grad()
            && !b.tracks_grad()
        {
            let lhs_storage = self.storage.materialize(self.indices.len())?;
            let rhs_storage = other_aligned
                .storage
                .materialize(other_aligned.indices.len())?;
            let combined = lhs_storage
                .axpby(
                    &a.to_backend_scalar(),
                    rhs_storage.as_ref(),
                    &b.to_backend_scalar(),
                )
                .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("storage axpby failed: {e}"))?;
            return Self::from_storage(self.indices.clone(), Arc::new(combined));
        }

        let self_native = self.as_native()?;
        let other_native = other_aligned.as_native()?;
        let a_native = a.as_tensor()?.as_native()?;
        let b_native = b.as_tensor()?.as_native()?;
        if self_native.dtype() != other_native.dtype()
            || self_native.dtype() != a_native.dtype()
            || other_native.dtype() != b_native.dtype()
        {
            let combined = axpby_native_tensor(
                self_native,
                &a.to_backend_scalar(),
                other_native,
                &b.to_backend_scalar(),
            )?;
            return Self::from_native_with_axis_classes(
                self.indices.clone(),
                combined,
                axis_classes,
            );
        }

        let lhs = self.scale(a)?;
        let rhs = other_aligned.scale(b)?;
        let combined = lhs
            .try_materialized_inner()?
            .add(rhs.try_materialized_inner()?)
            .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("tensor addition failed: {e}"))?;
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(self.indices.clone(), combined, axis_classes)
    }

    /// Scalar multiplication.
    ///
    /// Multiplies every element by `scalar`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{AnyScalar, DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let t = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i], vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0]).unwrap();
    /// let scaled = t.scale(AnyScalar::new_real(2.0)).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(scaled.to_vec::<f64>().unwrap(), vec![2.0, 4.0, 6.0]);
    /// ```
    pub fn scale(&self, scalar: AnyScalar) -> Result<Self> {
        if !self.tracks_grad() && !scalar.tracks_grad() {
            let scaled = self.storage.scale(&scalar.to_backend_scalar())?;
            return Self::from_storage(self.indices.clone(), Arc::new(scaled));
        }

        let self_native = self.as_native()?;
        let scalar_native = scalar.as_tensor()?.as_native()?;
        if self_native.dtype() != scalar_native.dtype() {
            let scaled = scale_native_tensor(self_native, &scalar.to_backend_scalar())?;
            return Self::from_native_with_axis_classes(
                self.indices.clone(),
                scaled,
                self.storage.axis_classes().to_vec(),
            );
        }

        let scaled = if self.indices.is_empty() {
            self.try_materialized_inner()?
                .mul(scalar.as_tensor()?.try_materialized_inner()?)
                .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("scalar multiplication failed: {e}"))?
        } else {
            let subscripts = Self::scale_subscripts(self.indices.len())?;
            eager_einsum_ad(
                &[
                    self.try_materialized_inner()?,
                    scalar.as_tensor()?.try_materialized_inner()?,
                ],
                &subscripts,
            )
            .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("tensor scaling failed: {e}"))?
        };
        Self::from_inner_with_axis_classes(
            self.indices.clone(),
            scaled,
            self.storage.axis_classes().to_vec(),
        )
    }

    /// Inner product (dot product) of two tensors.
    ///
    /// Computes `⟨self, other⟩ = Σ conj(self)_i * other_i`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let a = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0]).unwrap();
    /// let b = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], vec![4.0, 5.0, 6.0]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// // <a, b> = 1*4 + 2*5 + 3*6 = 32
    /// let ip = a.inner_product(&b).unwrap();
    /// assert!((ip.real() - 32.0).abs() < 1e-12);
    /// ```
    pub fn inner_product(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<AnyScalar> {
        if self.indices.len() == other.indices.len() {
            let self_set: HashSet<_> = self.indices.iter().collect();
            let other_set: HashSet<_> = other.indices.iter().collect();
            if self_set == other_set {
                let other_aligned = other.permute_indices(&self.indices)?;
                let result = super::contract::contract_pair_with_operand_options(
                    self,
                    &other_aligned,
                    PairwiseContractionOptions::new().with_lhs_conj(true),
                )?;
                return result.sum();
            }
        }

        // Contract self.conj() with other over all indices
        let result = super::contract::contract_pair_with_operand_options(
            self,
            other,
            PairwiseContractionOptions::new().with_lhs_conj(true),
        )?;
        // Result should be a scalar (no indices)
        result.sum()
    }
}

// ============================================================================
// Index Replacement Methods
// ============================================================================

impl TensorDynLen {
    /// Replace an index in the tensor with a new index.
    ///
    /// This replaces the index matching `old_index` by ID with `new_index`.
    /// The storage data is not modified, only the index metadata is changed.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `old_index` - The index to replace (matched by ID)
    /// * `new_index` - The new index to use
    ///
    /// # Returns
    /// A new tensor with the index replaced. If no index matches `old_index`,
    /// returns a clone of the original tensor.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the replacement index has a different dimension.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    /// let new_i = Index::new_dyn(2);  // Same dimension, different ID
    ///
    /// let indices = vec![i.clone(), j.clone()];
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(indices, vec![0.0; 6]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Replace index i with new_i
    /// let replaced = tensor.replaceind(&i, &new_i).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(replaced.indices[0].id, new_i.id);
    /// assert_eq!(replaced.indices[1].id, j.id);
    /// ```
    pub fn replaceind(&self, old_index: &DynIndex, new_index: &DynIndex) -> Result<Self> {
        // Validate dimension match
        if old_index.dim() != new_index.dim() {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "Index space mismatch: cannot replace index with dimension {} with index of dimension {}",
                old_index.dim(),
                new_index.dim()
            ));
        }

        let new_indices: Vec<_> = self
            .indices
            .iter()
            .map(|idx| {
                if *idx == *old_index {
                    new_index.clone()
                } else {
                    idx.clone()
                }
            })
            .collect();

        Ok(Self {
            indices: new_indices,
            storage: self.storage.clone(),
            structured_ad: self.structured_ad.clone(),
            eager_cache: Arc::clone(&self.eager_cache),
        })
    }

    /// Replace multiple indices in the tensor.
    ///
    /// This replaces each index in `old_indices` (matched by ID) with the corresponding
    /// index in `new_indices`. The storage data is not modified.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `old_indices` - The indices to replace (matched by ID)
    /// * `new_indices` - The new indices to use
    ///
    /// # Returns
    /// A new tensor with the indices replaced. Indices not found in `old_indices`
    /// are kept unchanged.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if `old_indices` and `new_indices` have different
    /// lengths or if any replacement index has a different dimension.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    /// let new_i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let new_j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    ///
    /// let indices = vec![i.clone(), j.clone()];
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(indices, vec![0.0; 6]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Replace both indices
    /// let replaced = tensor
    ///     .replaceinds(&[i.clone(), j.clone()], &[new_i.clone(), new_j.clone()])
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(replaced.indices[0].id, new_i.id);
    /// assert_eq!(replaced.indices[1].id, new_j.id);
    /// ```
    pub fn replaceinds(&self, old_indices: &[DynIndex], new_indices: &[DynIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            old_indices.len() == new_indices.len(),
            "old_indices and new_indices must have the same length"
        );

        // Validate dimension matches for all replacements
        for (old, new) in old_indices.iter().zip(new_indices.iter()) {
            if old.dim() != new.dim() {
                return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                    "Index space mismatch: cannot replace index with dimension {} with index of dimension {}",
                    old.dim(),
                    new.dim()
                ));
            }
        }

        // Build a map from old indices to new indices
        let replacement_map: std::collections::HashMap<_, _> =
            old_indices.iter().zip(new_indices.iter()).collect();

        let new_indices_vec: Vec<_> = self
            .indices
            .iter()
            .map(|idx| {
                if let Some(new_idx) = replacement_map.get(idx) {
                    (*new_idx).clone()
                } else {
                    idx.clone()
                }
            })
            .collect();

        Ok(Self {
            indices: new_indices_vec,
            storage: self.storage.clone(),
            structured_ad: self.structured_ad.clone(),
            eager_cache: Arc::clone(&self.eager_cache),
        })
    }
}

// ============================================================================
// Complex Conjugation
// ============================================================================

impl TensorDynLen {
    /// Complex conjugate of all tensor elements.
    ///
    /// For real (f64) tensors, returns a copy (conjugate of real is identity).
    /// For complex (Complex64) tensors, conjugates each element.
    ///
    /// The indices and dimensions remain unchanged.
    ///
    /// This is inspired by the `conj` operation in ITensorMPS.jl.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    /// use num_complex::Complex64;
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let data = vec![Complex64::new(1.0, 2.0), Complex64::new(3.0, -4.0)];
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i], data).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let conj_tensor = tensor.conj();
    /// // Elements are now conjugated: 1-2i, 3+4i
    /// ```
    pub fn conj(&self) -> Self {
        // Conjugate tensor: conjugate storage data and map indices via IndexLike::conj()
        // For default undirected indices, conj() is a no-op, so this is future-proof
        // for QSpace-compatible directed indices where conj() flips Ket <-> Bra
        let new_indices: Vec<DynIndex> = self.indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.conj()).collect();
        let structured_ad = self.tracked_compact_payload_value().and_then(|value| {
            value.payload.conj().ok().map(|payload| {
                Arc::new(StructuredAdValue {
                    payload: Arc::new(payload),
                    payload_dims: value.payload_dims.clone(),
                    axis_classes: value.axis_classes.clone(),
                })
            })
        });
        let eager_cache = self
            .eager_cache
            .get()
            .and_then(|inner| inner.conj().ok())
            .map(Self::eager_cache_with)
            .unwrap_or_else(Self::empty_eager_cache);
        Self {
            indices: new_indices,
            storage: self.storage.conj().unwrap_or_else(|_| {
                TensorDynLenStorage::from_storage(Arc::new(self.storage().conj()))
            }),
            structured_ad,
            eager_cache,
        }
    }
}

// ============================================================================
// Norm Computation
// ============================================================================

impl TensorDynLen {
    /// Compute the squared Frobenius norm of the tensor: ||T||² = Σ|T_ijk...|²
    ///
    /// For real tensors: sum of squares of all elements.
    /// For complex tensors: sum of |z|² = z * conj(z) for all elements.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    /// let data = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0];  // 1² + 2² + ... + 6² = 91
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i, j], data).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert!((tensor.norm_squared() - 91.0).abs() < 1e-10);
    /// ```
    pub fn norm_squared(&self) -> f64 {
        self.try_norm_squared().unwrap_or(f64::NAN)
    }

    /// Try to compute the squared Frobenius norm of the tensor.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if conjugation, contraction, or scalar extraction fails.
    pub fn try_norm_squared(&self) -> Result<f64> {
        // Special case: scalar tensor (no indices)
        if self.indices.is_empty() {
            // For a scalar, ||T||² = |value|²
            let value = self.sum()?;
            let abs_val = value.abs();
            return Ok(abs_val * abs_val);
        }

        // Contract tensor with its conjugate over all indices → scalar
        // ||T||² = Σ T_ijk... * conj(T_ijk...) = Σ |T_ijk...|²
        let conj = self.conj();
        let scalar = super::contract::contract_pair(self, &conj)?;
        // The mathematical result is nonnegative and real. Clamp tiny negative
        // roundoff so downstream `sqrt` stays well-defined for complex tensors.
        Ok(scalar.sum()?.real().max(0.0))
    }

    /// Compute the Frobenius norm of the tensor: ||T|| = sqrt(Σ|T_ijk...|²)
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let data = vec![3.0, 4.0];  // sqrt(9 + 16) = 5
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i], data).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert!((tensor.norm() - 5.0).abs() < 1e-10);
    /// ```
    pub fn norm(&self) -> f64 {
        self.norm_squared().sqrt()
    }

    /// Maximum absolute value of all elements (L-infinity norm).
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(4);
    /// let t = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i], vec![-5.0, 1.0, 3.0, -2.0]).unwrap();
    /// assert!((t.maxabs() - 5.0).abs() < 1e-12);
    /// ```
    pub fn maxabs(&self) -> f64 {
        self.storage.max_abs().unwrap_or(0.0)
    }

    /// Element-wise subtraction with index alignment.
    ///
    /// This computes `self - other` using the same vector-space semantics as
    /// [`TensorVectorSpace`](crate::TensorVectorSpace).
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the tensors cannot be aligned or subtracted.
    pub fn sub(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<Self> {
        self.axpby(AnyScalar::new_real(1.0), other, AnyScalar::new_real(-1.0))
    }

    /// Negate all elements.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if scalar multiplication fails for the tensor storage.
    pub fn neg(&self) -> Result<Self> {
        self.scale(AnyScalar::new_real(-1.0))
    }

    /// Approximate equality check using Julia `isapprox`-style semantics.
    ///
    /// Returns `true` when `||self - other|| <= max(atol, rtol *
    /// max(||self||, ||other||))`.
    pub fn isapprox(&self, other: &Self, atol: f64, rtol: f64) -> bool {
        let diff = match self.sub(other) {
            Ok(d) => d,
            Err(_) => return false,
        };
        let diff_norm = diff.norm();
        diff_norm <= atol.max(rtol * self.norm().max(other.norm()))
    }

    /// Create a diagonal Kronecker-delta tensor for one input/output index pair.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the two indices have different dimensions.
    pub fn diagonal(input_index: &DynIndex, output_index: &DynIndex) -> Result<Self> {
        <Self as TensorConstructionLike>::diagonal(input_index, output_index)
    }

    /// Create a product of Kronecker-delta tensors for paired index lists.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the index lists have different lengths or paired
    /// dimensions do not match.
    pub fn delta(input_indices: &[DynIndex], output_indices: &[DynIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
        <Self as TensorConstructionLike>::delta(input_indices, output_indices)
    }

    /// Create a scalar tensor equal to one.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if dense scalar construction fails.
    pub fn scalar_one() -> Result<Self> {
        <Self as TensorConstructionLike>::scalar_one()
    }

    /// Create a tensor filled with ones over the given indices.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the tensor size overflows or dense construction fails.
    pub fn ones(indices: &[DynIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
        <Self as TensorConstructionLike>::ones(indices)
    }

    /// Create a one-hot tensor with value one at the specified index positions.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if any coordinate is outside its index dimension.
    pub fn onehot(index_vals: &[(DynIndex, usize)]) -> Result<Self> {
        <Self as TensorConstructionLike>::onehot(index_vals)
    }

    /// Compute the relative distance between two tensors.
    ///
    /// Returns `||A - B|| / ||A||` (Frobenius norm).
    /// If `||A|| = 0`, returns `||B||` instead to avoid division by zero.
    ///
    /// This is the ITensor-style distance function useful for comparing tensors.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `other` - The other tensor to compare with
    ///
    /// # Returns
    /// The relative distance as a f64 value.
    ///
    /// # Note
    /// The indices of both tensors must be permutable to each other.
    /// The result tensor (A - B) uses the index ordering from self.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let data_a = vec![1.0, 0.0];
    /// let data_b = vec![1.0, 0.0];  // Same tensor
    /// let tensor_a: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], data_a).unwrap();
    /// let tensor_b: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], data_b).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert!(tensor_a.distance(&tensor_b).unwrap() < 1e-10);  // Zero distance
    /// ```
    pub fn distance(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<f64> {
        let norm_self = self.norm();

        // Compute A - B = A + (-1) * B
        let neg_other = other.scale(AnyScalar::new_real(-1.0))?;
        let diff = self.add(&neg_other)?;
        let norm_diff = diff.norm();

        if norm_self > 0.0 {
            Ok(norm_diff / norm_self)
        } else {
            Ok(norm_diff)
        }
    }
}

impl std::fmt::Debug for TensorDynLen {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
        f.debug_struct("TensorDynLen")
            .field("indices", &self.indices)
            .field("dims", &self.dims())
            .field("is_diag", &self.is_diag())
            .finish()
    }
}

/// Create a diagonal tensor with dynamic rank from diagonal data.
///
/// # Arguments
/// * `indices` - The indices for the tensor (all must have the same dimension)
/// * `diag_data` - The diagonal elements (length must equal the dimension of indices)
///
/// The returned tensor preserves compact diagonal payload metadata; use
/// [`TensorDynLen::is_diag`] or [`TensorDynLen::storage`] to inspect that
/// representation.
///
/// # Panics
/// Panics if indices have different dimensions, or if diag_data length doesn't match.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```
/// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, diag_tensor_dyn_len};
///
/// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
/// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
/// let t = diag_tensor_dyn_len(vec![i, j], vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0]).unwrap();
/// assert_eq!(t.dims(), vec![3, 3]);
/// assert!(t.is_diag());
/// ```
pub fn diag_tensor_dyn_len(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, diag_data: Vec<f64>) -> Result<TensorDynLen> {
    TensorDynLen::from_diag(indices, diag_data)
}

#[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
pub(crate) type UnfoldSplitInnerResult = (
    EagerTensor,
    usize,
    usize,
    usize,
    Vec<DynIndex>,
    Vec<DynIndex>,
);

/// Unfold a tensor into a matrix by splitting indices into left and right groups.
///
/// This function validates the split, permutes the tensor so that left indices
/// come first, and returns a rank-2 native tenferro tensor along with metadata.
///
/// # Arguments
/// * `t` - Input tensor
/// * `left_inds` - Indices to place on the left (row) side of the matrix
///
/// # Returns
/// A tuple `(matrix_tensor, left_len, m, n, left_indices, right_indices)` where:
/// - `matrix_tensor` is a rank-2 `tenferro::Tensor` with shape `[m, n]`
/// - `left_len` is the number of left indices
/// - `m` is the product of left index dimensions
/// - `n` is the product of right index dimensions
/// - `left_indices` is the vector of left indices (cloned)
/// - `right_indices` is the vector of right indices (cloned)
///
/// # Errors
/// Returns an error if:
/// - The tensor rank is < 2
/// - `left_inds` is empty or contains all indices
/// - `left_inds` contains indices not in the tensor or duplicates
/// - Native reshape fails
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```
/// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen, unfold_split};
///
/// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
/// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
/// // 2x3 dense tensor with data [1..6]
/// let t = TensorDynLen::from_dense(
///     vec![i.clone(), j.clone()],
///     vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0],
/// ).unwrap();
///
/// let (matrix, left_len, m, n, left_indices, right_indices) =
///     unfold_split(&t, &[i]).unwrap();
/// assert_eq!(left_len, 1);
/// assert_eq!(m, 2);
/// assert_eq!(n, 3);
/// assert_eq!(left_indices.len(), 1);
/// assert_eq!(right_indices.len(), 1);
/// ```
#[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
pub fn unfold_split(
    t: &TensorDynLen,
    left_inds: &[DynIndex],
) -> Result<(
    NativeTensor,
    usize,
    usize,
    usize,
    Vec<DynIndex>,
    Vec<DynIndex>,
)> {
    let (matrix_inner, left_len, m, n, left_indices, right_indices) =
        unfold_split_inner(t, left_inds)?;

    Ok((
        matrix_inner.data().clone(),
        left_len,
        m,
        n,
        left_indices,
        right_indices,
    ))
}

pub(crate) fn unfold_split_inner(
    t: &TensorDynLen,
    left_inds: &[DynIndex],
) -> Result<UnfoldSplitInnerResult> {
    let rank = t.indices.len();

    // Validate rank
    anyhow::ensure!(rank >= 2, "Tensor must have rank >= 2, got rank {}", rank);

    let left_len = left_inds.len();

    // Validate split: must be a proper subset
    anyhow::ensure!(
        left_len > 0 && left_len < rank,
        "Left indices must be a non-empty proper subset of tensor indices (0 < left_len < rank), got left_len={}, rank={}",
        left_len,
        rank
    );

    // Validate that all left_inds are in the tensor and there are no duplicates
    let tensor_set: HashSet<_> = t.indices.iter().collect();
    let mut left_set = HashSet::new();

    for left_idx in left_inds {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            tensor_set.contains(left_idx),
            "Index in left_inds not found in tensor"
        );
        anyhow::ensure!(left_set.insert(left_idx), "Duplicate index in left_inds");
    }

    // Build right_inds: all indices not in left_inds, in original order
    let mut right_inds = Vec::new();
    for idx in &t.indices {
        if !left_set.contains(idx) {
            right_inds.push(idx.clone());
        }
    }

    // Build new_indices: left_inds first, then right_inds
    let mut new_indices = Vec::with_capacity(rank);
    new_indices.extend_from_slice(left_inds);
    new_indices.extend_from_slice(&right_inds);

    // Permute tensor to have left indices first, then right indices
    let unfolded = t.permute_indices(&new_indices)?;

    // Compute matrix dimensions
    let unfolded_dims = unfolded.dims();
    let m: usize = unfolded_dims[..left_len].iter().product();
    let n: usize = unfolded_dims[left_len..].iter().product();

    let matrix_tensor = unfolded.try_materialized_inner()?.reshape(&[m, n])?;

    Ok((
        matrix_tensor,
        left_len,
        m,
        n,
        left_inds.to_vec(),
        right_inds,
    ))
}

// ============================================================================
// TensorIndex implementation for TensorDynLen
// ============================================================================

use crate::tensor_index::TensorIndex;

impl TensorIndex for TensorDynLen {
    type Index = DynIndex;

    fn external_indices(&self) -> Vec<DynIndex> {
        // For TensorDynLen, all indices are external.
        self.indices.clone()
    }

    fn num_external_indices(&self) -> usize {
        self.indices.len()
    }

    fn replaceind(&self, old_index: &DynIndex, new_index: &DynIndex) -> Result<Self> {
        // Delegate to the inherent method
        TensorDynLen::replaceind(self, old_index, new_index)
    }

    fn replaceinds(&self, old_indices: &[DynIndex], new_indices: &[DynIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
        // Delegate to the inherent method
        TensorDynLen::replaceinds(self, old_indices, new_indices)
    }
}

// ============================================================================
// TensorLike implementation for TensorDynLen
// ============================================================================

use crate::tensor_like::{
    FactorizeError, FactorizeOptions, FactorizeResult, TensorConstructionLike,
    TensorContractionLike, TensorFactorizationLike, TensorVectorSpace,
};

impl TensorVectorSpace for TensorDynLen {
    fn norm_squared(&self) -> f64 {
        TensorDynLen::norm_squared(self)
    }

    fn maxabs(&self) -> f64 {
        TensorDynLen::maxabs(self)
    }

    fn axpby(&self, a: crate::AnyScalar, other: &Self, b: crate::AnyScalar) -> Result<Self> {
        TensorDynLen::axpby(self, a, other, b)
    }

    fn scale(&self, scalar: crate::AnyScalar) -> Result<Self> {
        TensorDynLen::scale(self, scalar)
    }

    fn inner_product(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<crate::AnyScalar> {
        TensorDynLen::inner_product(self, other)
    }
}

impl TensorFactorizationLike for TensorDynLen {
    fn factorize(
        &self,
        left_inds: &[DynIndex],
        options: &FactorizeOptions,
    ) -> std::result::Result<FactorizeResult<Self>, FactorizeError> {
        crate::factorize::factorize(self, left_inds, options)
    }

    fn factorize_full_rank(
        &self,
        left_inds: &[DynIndex],
        alg: crate::FactorizeAlg,
        canonical: crate::Canonical,
    ) -> std::result::Result<FactorizeResult<Self>, FactorizeError> {
        crate::factorize::factorize_full_rank(self, left_inds, alg, canonical)
    }
}

impl TensorContractionLike for TensorDynLen {
    fn conj(&self) -> Self {
        // Delegate to the inherent method (complex conjugate for dense tensors)
        TensorDynLen::conj(self)
    }

    fn direct_sum(
        &self,
        other: &Self,
        pairs: &[(DynIndex, DynIndex)],
    ) -> Result<crate::tensor_like::DirectSumResult<Self>> {
        let (tensor, new_indices) = crate::direct_sum::direct_sum(self, other, pairs)?;
        Ok(crate::tensor_like::DirectSumResult {
            tensor,
            new_indices,
        })
    }

    fn outer_product(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<Self> {
        super::contract::outer_product(self, other)
    }

    fn permuteinds(&self, new_order: &[DynIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
        // Delegate to the inherent method
        TensorDynLen::permute_indices(self, new_order)
    }

    fn fuse_indices(
        &self,
        old_indices: &[DynIndex],
        new_index: DynIndex,
        order: LinearizationOrder,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        TensorDynLen::fuse_indices(self, old_indices, new_index, order)
    }

    fn contract(tensors: &[&Self]) -> Result<Self> {
        super::contract::contract(tensors)
    }

    fn contract_pair(&self, other: &Self) -> Result<Self> {
        super::contract::contract_pair(self, other)
    }
}

impl TensorConstructionLike for TensorDynLen {
    fn select_indices(&self, selected_indices: &[DynIndex], positions: &[usize]) -> Result<Self> {
        TensorDynLen::select_indices(self, selected_indices, positions)
    }

    fn diagonal(input_index: &DynIndex, output_index: &DynIndex) -> Result<Self> {
        let dim = input_index.dim();
        if dim != output_index.dim() {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "Dimension mismatch: input index has dim {}, output has dim {}",
                dim,
                output_index.dim(),
            ));
        }

        TensorDynLen::from_diag(
            vec![input_index.clone(), output_index.clone()],
            vec![1.0_f64; dim],
        )
    }

    fn scalar_one() -> Result<Self> {
        TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![], vec![1.0_f64])
    }

    fn ones(indices: &[DynIndex]) -> Result<Self> {
        if indices.is_empty() {
            return Self::scalar_one();
        }
        let dims: Vec<usize> = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.size()).collect();
        let total_size = checked_total_size(&dims)?;
        TensorDynLen::from_dense(indices.to_vec(), vec![1.0_f64; total_size])
    }

    fn onehot(index_vals: &[(DynIndex, usize)]) -> Result<Self> {
        if index_vals.is_empty() {
            return Self::scalar_one();
        }
        let indices: Vec<DynIndex> = index_vals.iter().map(|(idx, _)| idx.clone()).collect();
        let vals: Vec<usize> = index_vals.iter().map(|(_, v)| *v).collect();
        let dims: Vec<usize> = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.size()).collect();

        for (k, (&v, &d)) in vals.iter().zip(dims.iter()).enumerate() {
            if v >= d {
                return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                    "onehot: value {} at position {} is >= dimension {}",
                    v,
                    k,
                    d
                ));
            }
        }

        let total_size = checked_total_size(&dims)?;
        let mut data = vec![0.0_f64; total_size];

        let offset = column_major_offset(&dims, &vals)?;
        data[offset] = 1.0;

        Self::from_dense(indices, data)
    }

    // delta() uses the default implementation via diagonal() and outer_product()
}

fn checked_total_size(dims: &[usize]) -> Result<usize> {
    dims.iter().try_fold(1_usize, |acc, &d| {
        if d == 0 {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!("invalid dimension 0"));
        }
        acc.checked_mul(d)
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("tensor size overflow"))
    })
}

fn column_major_offset(dims: &[usize], vals: &[usize]) -> Result<usize> {
    if dims.len() != vals.len() {
        return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
            "column_major_offset: dims.len() != vals.len()"
        ));
    }
    checked_total_size(dims)?;

    let mut offset = 0usize;
    let mut stride = 1usize;
    for (k, (&v, &d)) in vals.iter().zip(dims.iter()).enumerate() {
        if d == 0 {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!("invalid dimension 0 at position {}", k));
        }
        if v >= d {
            return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "column_major_offset: value {} at position {} is >= dimension {}",
                v,
                k,
                d
            ));
        }
        let term = v
            .checked_mul(stride)
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("column_major_offset: overflow"))?;
        offset = offset
            .checked_add(term)
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("column_major_offset: overflow"))?;
        stride = stride
            .checked_mul(d)
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("column_major_offset: overflow"))?;
    }
    Ok(offset)
}

// ============================================================================
// High-level API for tensor construction (avoids direct Storage access)
// ============================================================================

impl TensorDynLen {
    fn any_scalar_payload_to_complex(data: Vec<AnyScalar>) -> Vec<Complex64> {
        data.into_iter()
            .map(|value| {
                value
                    .as_c64()
                    .unwrap_or_else(|| Complex64::new(value.real(), 0.0))
            })
            .collect()
    }

    fn any_scalar_payload_to_real(data: Vec<AnyScalar>) -> Vec<f64> {
        data.into_iter().map(|value| value.real()).collect()
    }

    fn validate_dense_payload_len(data_len: usize, dims: &[usize]) -> Result<()> {
        let expected_len = checked_total_size(dims)?;
        anyhow::ensure!(
            data_len == expected_len,
            "dense payload length {} does not match dims {:?} (expected {})",
            data_len,
            dims,
            expected_len
        );
        Ok(())
    }

    fn validate_diag_payload_len(data_len: usize, dims: &[usize]) -> Result<()> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            !dims.is_empty(),
            "diagonal tensor construction requires at least one index"
        );
        Self::validate_diag_dims(dims)?;
        anyhow::ensure!(
            data_len == dims[0],
            "diagonal payload length {} does not match diagonal dimension {}",
            data_len,
            dims[0]
        );
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Create a tensor from dense data with explicit indices.
    ///
    /// This is the recommended high-level API for creating tensors from raw data.
    /// It avoids direct access to `Storage` internals.
    ///
    /// # Type Parameters
    /// * `T` - Scalar type (`f64` or `Complex64`)
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `indices` - Vector of indices for the tensor
    /// * `data` - Tensor data in column-major order
    ///
    /// # Panics
    /// Panics if data length doesn't match the product of index dimensions.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    /// let data = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0];
    /// let tensor: TensorDynLen = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i, j], data).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(tensor.dims(), vec![2, 3]);
    /// ```
    pub fn from_dense<T: TensorElement>(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, data: Vec<T>) -> Result<Self> {
        let dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&indices);
        Self::validate_indices(&indices)?;
        Self::validate_dense_payload_len(data.len(), &dims)?;
        let native = dense_native_tensor_from_col_major(&data, &dims)?;
        Self::from_native(indices, native)
    }

    /// Create a tensor from dense payload data provided as [`AnyScalar`] values.
    ///
    /// This is the preferred public API when the caller only knows the scalar
    /// type at runtime.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{AnyScalar, TensorDynLen};
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_dense_any(
    ///     vec![i, j],
    ///     vec![
    ///         AnyScalar::new_real(1.0),
    ///         AnyScalar::new_complex(0.0, 1.0),
    ///         AnyScalar::new_real(2.0),
    ///         AnyScalar::new_real(3.0),
    ///     ],
    /// ).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert!(tensor.is_complex());
    /// assert_eq!(tensor.dims(), vec![2, 2]);
    /// ```
    pub fn from_dense_any(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, data: Vec<AnyScalar>) -> Result<Self> {
        if data.iter().any(AnyScalar::is_complex) {
            Self::from_dense(indices, Self::any_scalar_payload_to_complex(data))
        } else {
            Self::from_dense(indices, Self::any_scalar_payload_to_real(data))
        }
    }

    /// Create a diagonal tensor from diagonal payload data with explicit indices.
    ///
    /// All indices must have the same dimension, and `data.len()` must equal
    /// that dimension. The resulting tensor has nonzero entries only on
    /// the multi-index diagonal (`T[i,i,...,i] = data[i]`).
    ///
    /// The returned tensor preserves compact diagonal payload metadata; use
    /// [`TensorDynLen::is_diag`] or [`TensorDynLen::storage`] to inspect that
    /// representation.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(3);
    /// let diag = TensorDynLen::from_diag(vec![i, j], vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0]).unwrap();
    /// assert!(diag.is_diag());
    ///
    /// let data = diag.to_vec::<f64>().unwrap();
    /// // 3x3 identity-like: [1,0,0, 0,2,0, 0,0,3] in column-major
    /// assert!((data[0] - 1.0).abs() < 1e-12);
    /// assert!((data[4] - 2.0).abs() < 1e-12);
    /// assert!((data[8] - 3.0).abs() < 1e-12);
    /// assert!((data[1]).abs() < 1e-12);  // off-diagonal is zero
    /// ```
    pub fn from_diag<T: TensorElement>(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, data: Vec<T>) -> Result<Self> {
        let dims = Self::expected_dims_from_indices(&indices);
        Self::validate_indices(&indices)?;
        Self::validate_diag_payload_len(data.len(), &dims)?;
        let native = diag_native_tensor_from_col_major(&data, dims.len())?;
        Self::from_native_with_axis_classes(indices, native, Self::diag_axis_classes(dims.len()))
    }

    /// Create a diagonal tensor from diagonal payload data provided as
    /// [`AnyScalar`] values.
    ///
    /// This is the preferred public API when the caller only knows the scalar
    /// type at runtime.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{AnyScalar, TensorDynLen};
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_diag_any(
    ///     vec![i, j],
    ///     vec![AnyScalar::new_real(1.0), AnyScalar::new_complex(2.0, -1.0)],
    /// ).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert!(tensor.is_complex());
    /// assert_eq!(tensor.dims(), vec![2, 2]);
    /// ```
    pub fn from_diag_any(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, data: Vec<AnyScalar>) -> Result<Self> {
        if data.iter().any(AnyScalar::is_complex) {
            Self::from_diag(indices, Self::any_scalar_payload_to_complex(data))
        } else {
            Self::from_diag(indices, Self::any_scalar_payload_to_real(data))
        }
    }

    /// Create a copy tensor whose nonzero entries are `value` on the diagonal.
    ///
    /// For indices `[i, j, k]`, the returned tensor satisfies
    /// `T[i, j, k] = value` when `i = j = k`, and zero otherwise.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{AnyScalar, TensorDynLen};
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let k = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::copy_tensor(
    ///     vec![i, j, k],
    ///     AnyScalar::new_real(1.0),
    /// ).unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(tensor.dims(), vec![2, 2, 2]);
    /// ```
    pub fn copy_tensor(indices: Vec<DynIndex>, value: AnyScalar) -> Result<Self> {
        if indices.is_empty() {
            return Self::from_dense_any(vec![], vec![value]);
        }
        let dim = indices[0].dim();
        let data = vec![value; dim];
        Self::from_diag_any(indices, data)
    }

    /// Replace multiple tensor indices with one fused index using an exact local reshape.
    ///
    /// The indices in `old_indices` identify the axes to fuse by ID and also
    /// define the coordinate order used inside `new_index`. The new fused index
    /// is inserted at the earliest axis position among the fused axes; all
    /// other axes keep their original relative order. Use
    /// [`LinearizationOrder::ColumnMajor`] to match tensor4all's dense vector
    /// layout, or [`LinearizationOrder::RowMajor`] when interoperating with
    /// row-major fused coordinates.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `old_indices` - Non-empty list of existing tensor indices to replace.
    ///   Each index is matched by ID, must appear exactly once in the tensor,
    ///   must have the same dimension as the matched tensor axis, and must not
    ///   be duplicated in this list.
    /// * `new_index` - Replacement index whose dimension must equal the product
    ///   of the dimensions in `old_indices`.
    /// * `order` - Linearization convention used to encode the old coordinates
    ///   into the single coordinate of `new_index`.
    ///
    /// # Returns
    /// A tensor with the same element type and values, but with `old_indices`
    /// replaced by `new_index`.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if `old_indices` is empty, contains duplicate IDs,
    /// references an index not present in the tensor, if the fused dimension
    /// does not match the product of the old dimensions, if the replacement
    /// would duplicate a kept index, or if the dense reshape cannot be
    /// represented without overflow.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, LinearizationOrder, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let fused = DynIndex::new_link(4).unwrap();
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_dense(
    ///     vec![i.clone(), j.clone()],
    ///     vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0],
    /// ).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let fused_tensor = tensor
    ///     .fuse_indices(&[i.clone(), j.clone()], fused.clone(), LinearizationOrder::ColumnMajor)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(fused_tensor.dims(), vec![4]);
    ///
    /// let roundtrip = fused_tensor
    ///     .unfuse_index(&fused, &[i, j], LinearizationOrder::ColumnMajor)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// assert!(roundtrip.isapprox(&tensor, 1e-12, 0.0));
    /// ```
    pub fn fuse_indices(
        &self,
        old_indices: &[DynIndex],
        new_index: DynIndex,
        order: LinearizationOrder,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            !old_indices.is_empty(),
            "fuse_indices requires at least one index to fuse"
        );

        let old_dims = self.dims();
        let mut seen_indices = HashSet::new();
        let mut old_axes = Vec::with_capacity(old_indices.len());
        for old_index in old_indices {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                seen_indices.insert(old_index),
                "duplicate index in old_indices"
            );
            let axis = self
                .indices
                .iter()
                .position(|idx| idx == old_index)
                .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("index {:?} not found in tensor", old_index))?;
            anyhow::ensure!(
                old_index.dim() == old_dims[axis],
                "old index dimension does not match tensor axis dimension"
            );
            old_axes.push(axis);
        }

        let fused_dims: Vec<usize> = old_axes.iter().map(|&axis| old_dims[axis]).collect();
        let fused_product = checked_product(&fused_dims)?;
        anyhow::ensure!(
            fused_product == new_index.dim(),
            "product of old index dimensions must match the replacement index dimension"
        );

        let insertion_axis =
            old_axes.iter().copied().min().ok_or_else(|| {
                anyhow::anyhow!("fuse_indices requires at least one index to fuse")
            })?;
        let old_axis_set: HashSet<usize> = old_axes.iter().copied().collect();

        let mut result_indices =
            Vec::with_capacity(self.indices.len() - old_indices.len() + 1usize);
        for (axis, index) in self.indices.iter().enumerate() {
            if axis == insertion_axis {
                result_indices.push(new_index.clone());
            }
            if !old_axis_set.contains(&axis) {
                result_indices.push(index.clone());
            }
        }
        let mut result_seen = HashSet::new();
        for index in &result_indices {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                result_seen.insert(index),
                "fuse_indices result would contain duplicate index"
            );
        }
        Self::validate_indices(&result_indices)?;

        let mut new_dims = Vec::with_capacity(old_dims.len() - old_indices.len() + 1usize);
        for (axis, dim) in old_dims.iter().copied().enumerate() {
            if axis == insertion_axis {
                new_dims.push(new_index.dim());
            }
            if !old_axis_set.contains(&axis) {
                new_dims.push(dim);
            }
        }

        let old_data = self.to_vec_any()?;
        let mut new_data = vec![AnyScalar::new_real(0.0); old_data.len()];
        for (old_linear, value) in old_data.into_iter().enumerate() {
            let old_multi = decode_col_major_linear(old_linear, &old_dims)?;
            let fused_multi: Vec<usize> = old_axes.iter().map(|&axis| old_multi[axis]).collect();
            let fused_linear = encode_linear_with_order(&fused_multi, &fused_dims, order)?;

            let mut new_multi = Vec::with_capacity(new_dims.len());
            for (axis, old_coord) in old_multi.iter().copied().enumerate() {
                if axis == insertion_axis {
                    new_multi.push(fused_linear);
                }
                if !old_axis_set.contains(&axis) {
                    new_multi.push(old_coord);
                }
            }
            let new_linear = encode_col_major_linear(&new_multi, &new_dims)?;
            new_data[new_linear] = value;
        }

        Self::from_dense_any(result_indices, new_data)
    }

    /// Replace one fused index with multiple indices using an exact reshape.
    ///
    /// The caller must specify how the old fused index should be decoded into
    /// the new indices via `order`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, LinearizationOrder, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let fused = DynIndex::new_dyn(4);
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![fused.clone()], vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let unfused = tensor
    ///     .unfuse_index(&fused, &[i.clone(), j.clone()], LinearizationOrder::ColumnMajor)
    ///     .unwrap();
    ///
    /// let expected = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i, j], vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]).unwrap();
    /// assert!(unfused.isapprox(&expected, 1e-12, 0.0));
    /// ```
    pub fn unfuse_index(
        &self,
        old_index: &DynIndex,
        new_indices: &[DynIndex],
        order: LinearizationOrder,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            !new_indices.is_empty(),
            "unfuse_index requires at least one replacement index"
        );

        let axis = self
            .indices
            .iter()
            .position(|idx| idx == old_index)
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("index {:?} not found in tensor", old_index))?;

        let replacement_dims: Vec<usize> = new_indices.iter().map(DynIndex::dim).collect();
        let replacement_product = checked_product(&replacement_dims)?;
        anyhow::ensure!(
            replacement_product == old_index.dim(),
            "product of new index dimensions must match the replaced index dimension"
        );

        let mut result_indices =
            Vec::with_capacity(self.indices.len() - 1usize + new_indices.len());
        result_indices.extend_from_slice(&self.indices[..axis]);
        result_indices.extend(new_indices.iter().cloned());
        result_indices.extend_from_slice(&self.indices[axis + 1..]);
        Self::validate_indices(&result_indices)?;

        let old_dims = self.dims();
        let mut new_dims = Vec::with_capacity(old_dims.len() - 1usize + replacement_dims.len());
        new_dims.extend_from_slice(&old_dims[..axis]);
        new_dims.extend_from_slice(&replacement_dims);
        new_dims.extend_from_slice(&old_dims[axis + 1..]);

        let old_data = self.to_vec_any()?;
        let mut new_data = vec![AnyScalar::new_real(0.0); old_data.len()];
        for (old_linear, value) in old_data.into_iter().enumerate() {
            let old_multi = decode_col_major_linear(old_linear, &old_dims)?;
            let split_multi = decode_linear_with_order(old_multi[axis], &replacement_dims, order)?;
            let mut new_multi = Vec::with_capacity(new_dims.len());
            new_multi.extend_from_slice(&old_multi[..axis]);
            new_multi.extend_from_slice(&split_multi);
            new_multi.extend_from_slice(&old_multi[axis + 1..]);
            let new_linear = encode_col_major_linear(&new_multi, &new_dims)?;
            new_data[new_linear] = value;
        }

        Self::from_dense_any(result_indices, new_data)
    }

    /// Create a scalar (0-dimensional) tensor from a supported element value.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    ///
    /// let scalar = TensorDynLen::scalar(42.0).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(scalar.dims(), Vec::<usize>::new());
    /// assert_eq!(scalar.only().unwrap().real(), 42.0);
    /// ```
    pub fn scalar<T: TensorElement>(value: T) -> Result<Self> {
        Self::from_dense(vec![], vec![value])
    }

    /// Create a tensor filled with zeros of a supported element type.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = Index::new_dyn(3);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::zeros::<f64>(vec![i, j]).unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(tensor.dims(), vec![2, 3]);
    /// ```
    pub fn zeros<T: TensorElement + Zero + Clone>(indices: Vec<DynIndex>) -> Result<Self> {
        let dims: Vec<usize> = indices.iter().map(|idx| idx.dim()).collect();
        let size: usize = dims.iter().product();
        Self::from_dense(indices, vec![T::zero(); size])
    }
}

// ============================================================================
// High-level API for data extraction (avoids direct .storage() access)
// ============================================================================

impl TensorDynLen {
    /// Extract tensor data as a column-major `Vec<T>`.
    ///
    /// # Type Parameters
    /// * `T` - The scalar element type (`f64` or `Complex64`).
    ///
    /// # Returns
    /// A vector of the tensor data in column-major order.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the tensor's scalar type does not match `T`.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i], vec![1.0, 2.0]).unwrap();
    /// let data = tensor.to_vec::<f64>().unwrap();
    /// assert_eq!(data, &[1.0, 2.0]);
    /// ```
    pub fn to_vec<T: TensorElement>(&self) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
        native_tensor_primal_to_dense_col_major(self.as_native()?)
    }

    /// Consume the tensor and return its indices with dense column-major values.
    ///
    /// Use this when a caller needs to move index metadata and dense payload
    /// values across an API boundary. The returned values are ordered with the
    /// first tensor index varying fastest. Compact diagonal or structured
    /// storage is materialized into dense logical values.
    ///
    /// # Type Parameters
    /// * `T` - The scalar element type to extract. Use `f64` for real tensors
    ///   and `Complex64` for complex tensors.
    ///
    /// # Returns
    /// The tensor's original indices and dense column-major flat data.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the tensor has tracked autodiff state, if the
    /// requested scalar type does not match the tensor payload, or if dense
    /// materialization fails.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_dense(
    ///     vec![i.clone(), j.clone()],
    ///     vec![1.0_f64, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0],
    /// ).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let (indices, data) = tensor.into_dense_col_major_parts::<f64>().unwrap();
    ///
    /// assert_eq!(indices, vec![i, j]);
    /// assert_eq!(data, vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]);
    /// ```
    pub fn into_dense_col_major_parts<T: TensorElement>(self) -> Result<(Vec<DynIndex>, Vec<T>)> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            self.structured_ad.is_none() && !self.tracks_grad(),
            "TensorDynLen::into_dense_col_major_parts cannot consume tensors with tracked autodiff state"
        );
        let data = self.to_vec::<T>()?;
        Ok((self.indices, data))
    }

    fn to_vec_any(&self) -> Result<Vec<AnyScalar>> {
        if self.is_complex() {
            self.to_vec::<Complex64>().map(|data| {
                data.into_iter()
                    .map(|value| AnyScalar::new_complex(value.re, value.im))
                    .collect()
            })
        } else {
            self.to_vec::<f64>()
                .map(|data| data.into_iter().map(AnyScalar::new_real).collect())
        }
    }

    /// Extract tensor data as a column-major `Vec<f64>`.
    ///
    /// Prefer the generic [`to_vec::<f64>()`](Self::to_vec) method.
    /// This wrapper is kept for C API compatibility.
    pub fn as_slice_f64(&self) -> Result<Vec<f64>> {
        self.to_vec::<f64>()
    }

    /// Extract tensor data as a column-major `Vec<Complex64>`.
    ///
    /// Prefer the generic [`to_vec::<Complex64>()`](Self::to_vec) method.
    /// This wrapper is kept for C API compatibility.
    pub fn as_slice_c64(&self) -> Result<Vec<Complex64>> {
        self.to_vec::<Complex64>()
    }

    /// Check if the tensor has f64 storage.
    ///
    /// # Example
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::TensorDynLen;
    /// use tensor4all_core::index::{DefaultIndex as Index, DynId};
    ///
    /// let i = Index::new_dyn(2);
    /// let tensor = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i], vec![1.0, 2.0]).unwrap();
    /// assert!(tensor.is_f64());
    /// assert!(!tensor.is_complex());
    /// ```
    pub fn is_f64(&self) -> bool {
        self.storage.is_f64()
    }

    /// Check whether the tensor carries diagonal logical axis metadata.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    /// use tensor4all_tensorbackend::Storage;
    ///
    /// // Tensors from `from_dense` use dense storage
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let j = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let dense = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i, j], vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]).unwrap();
    /// assert!(!dense.is_diag());
    ///
    /// // Diagonal metadata is preserved when constructing from diagonal storage.
    /// let k = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let l = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let diag = TensorDynLen::from_storage(
    ///     vec![k, l],
    ///     Storage::from_diag_col_major(vec![1.0, 2.0], 2)
    ///         .map(std::sync::Arc::new)
    ///         .unwrap(),
    /// )
    /// .unwrap();
    /// assert!(diag.is_diag());
    /// ```
    pub fn is_diag(&self) -> bool {
        self.storage.is_diag()
    }

    /// Check if the tensor has complex storage (C64).
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use tensor4all_core::{DynIndex, TensorDynLen};
    /// use num_complex::Complex64;
    ///
    /// let i = DynIndex::new_dyn(2);
    /// let real_t = TensorDynLen::from_dense(vec![i.clone()], vec![1.0, 2.0]).unwrap();
    /// assert!(!real_t.is_complex());
    ///
    /// let complex_t = TensorDynLen::from_dense(
    ///     vec![i],
    ///     vec![Complex64::new(1.0, 0.0), Complex64::new(0.0, 1.0)],
    /// ).unwrap();
    /// assert!(complex_t.is_complex());
    /// ```
    pub fn is_complex(&self) -> bool {
        self.storage.is_complex()
    }
}

fn checked_product(dims: &[usize]) -> Result<usize> {
    dims.iter().try_fold(1usize, |acc, &dim| {
        acc.checked_mul(dim)
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("dimension product overflow"))
    })
}

fn decode_col_major_linear(linear: usize, dims: &[usize]) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
    let total = checked_product(dims)?;
    anyhow::ensure!(
        linear < total,
        "linear offset {} out of bounds for dims {:?}",
        linear,
        dims
    );
    let mut remaining = linear;
    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(dims.len());
    for &dim in dims {
        out.push(remaining % dim);
        remaining /= dim;
    }
    Ok(out)
}

fn encode_col_major_linear(indices: &[usize], dims: &[usize]) -> Result<usize> {
    anyhow::ensure!(
        indices.len() == dims.len(),
        "index rank {} does not match dims {:?}",
        indices.len(),
        dims
    );
    let mut linear = 0usize;
    let mut stride = 1usize;
    for (&index, &dim) in indices.iter().zip(dims.iter()) {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            index < dim,
            "index {} out of bounds for dimension {}",
            index,
            dim
        );
        linear += index * stride;
        stride = stride
            .checked_mul(dim)
            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("stride overflow"))?;
    }
    Ok(linear)
}

fn decode_linear_with_order(
    linear: usize,
    dims: &[usize],
    order: LinearizationOrder,
) -> Result<Vec<usize>> {
    let total = checked_product(dims)?;
    anyhow::ensure!(
        linear < total,
        "linear offset {} out of bounds for dims {:?}",
        linear,
        dims
    );

    let mut remaining = linear;
    let mut out = vec![0usize; dims.len()];
    match order {
        LinearizationOrder::ColumnMajor => {
            for (slot, &dim) in out.iter_mut().zip(dims.iter()) {
                *slot = remaining % dim;
                remaining /= dim;
            }
        }
        LinearizationOrder::RowMajor => {
            for (slot, &dim) in out.iter_mut().rev().zip(dims.iter().rev()) {
                *slot = remaining % dim;
                remaining /= dim;
            }
        }
    }
    Ok(out)
}

fn encode_linear_with_order(
    indices: &[usize],
    dims: &[usize],
    order: LinearizationOrder,
) -> Result<usize> {
    match order {
        LinearizationOrder::ColumnMajor => encode_col_major_linear(indices, dims),
        LinearizationOrder::RowMajor => {
            anyhow::ensure!(
                indices.len() == dims.len(),
                "index rank {} does not match dims {:?}",
                indices.len(),
                dims
            );
            let mut linear = 0usize;
            let mut stride = 1usize;
            for (&index, &dim) in indices.iter().rev().zip(dims.iter().rev()) {
                anyhow::ensure!(
                    index < dim,
                    "index {} out of bounds for dimension {}",
                    index,
                    dim
                );
                linear += index * stride;
                stride = stride
                    .checked_mul(dim)
                    .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("stride overflow"))?;
            }
            Ok(linear)
        }
    }
}